| Ancient Chinese architecture

Ancient Chinese architecture

Among the many and varied cultural monuments of China, ancient Chinese architecture occupies a very important place. Outstanding examples of ancient Chinese architecture such as Gugun Palace, Temple of Heaven, Yiheyuan Park in Beijing, ancient city ​​"Lijiang" in Yunnan Province, ancient living quarters in the southern part of Anhui Province and others have already been included in the World List cultural heritage UNESCO.

Species ancient Chinese buildings very diverse: these are palaces, temples, garden buildings, graves, and dwellings. In their appearance, these structures are either solemn and magnificent, or elegant, sophisticated and dynamic. However, they have characteristic feature, which in one way or another brings them closer to each other, are those construction ideas and aesthetic aspirations inherent exclusively to the Chinese nation.

In ancient China, the most typical house design was post-frame using wood for this purpose. Wooden pillars were installed on the adobe platform, on which longitudinal transverse beams were attached, and on them was a roof covered with tiles.

In China they say that “the wall of a house may collapse, but the house will not collapse.” This is explained by the fact that the weight of the house is supported by the pillars, not the wall. This frame system not only allowed Chinese architects to freely design the walls of the house, but also helped prevent the house from being destroyed during earthquakes. For example, in the northern Shanxi province of China there is a Buddhist temple more than 60 meters high, the frame of which was made of wood. This pagoda is more than 900 years old, but it has been very well preserved to this day.

Other feature of Chinese ancient architecture- this is the integrity of the composition, i.e. a certain ensemble of many houses is immediately created. In China, it is not customary to build separate buildings: be it palace buildings or private premises, they are always overgrown with additional buildings.

However, structures in an architectural ensemble are not necessarily placed symmetrically. For example, buildings in the mountainous regions of China or the premises of a garden and park complex sometimes deliberately allow violations of the symmetrical form in order to create a richer variety of building compositions. The pursuit of such a variety of forms during the construction of houses led not only to the creation of a single building style in Chinese ancient architecture, but also at the same time demonstrated its diversity.

The ancient architectural structures of China also have another striking character: they are subject to artistic development, giving them a specific decorative quality. For example, the roofs of houses were not flat, but always concave. And in order to give the building a certain mood, builders usually carved various animals and plants on the beams and cornices. Similar patterns were applied to engraved and wooden pillars of rooms, windows and doors.

In addition, ancient Chinese architecture is characterized by the use of paints. Usually the roofs of the palace were covered with yellow glazed tiles, the cornices were painted blue-green, the walls, pillars and courtyards were painted red, the rooms were covered with white and dark marble platforms that sparkled under the blue sky. The combination of yellow, red and green colors with white and black in decorating houses not only emphasizes the majesty of the buildings, but also pleases the eye.

Compared to palaces, living quarters in southern China are very modest. The houses are covered with dark gray tiled roofs, their walls are covered with white flowers, and their wooden frames are dark coffee-colored. Bamboo and bananas grow around the houses. Similar premises currently exist in the southern provinces of the country Anhui, Zhejiang, Fujian and others.

The main distinctive features of the architecture of Ancient China

Great Wall of China

Iron Pagoda

Temple of Heaven

China is the largest country in Asia; its civilization has existed since the 4th millennium BC. e. and belongs to the most developed in the era of antiquity and the Middle Ages. Over several thousand years of existence, Chinese culture has produced wonderful works of art and many useful inventions. Classical Chinese literature, philosophy and art have reached extraordinary heights.

Already in the third millennium BC. e. in China there was a fairly developed culture, the first flourishing period of which dates back to the reign of the Shang dynasty (about 1300 BC), which replaced the Yangshao culture (mid-III millennium BC - mid-II millennium BC .).

The first monuments of the ancient Chinese culture were discovered during excavations in the 20s. of our century. They give an idea of ​​the culture of Yangshao (mid-III millennium BC - mid-II millennium BC), which was replaced by monuments of the Shang (Yin) era (ca. 16th-11th centuries BC) .

It was mythological stage development of philosophical thought. The main ideas were about heaven, which gives life, and about the earthly principle, as well as the cult of ancestors, spirits of heaven and earth, which intricately combined the features of animals, birds and people. They made sacrifices of wine and meat, for which special ritual vessels were cast from bronze. The original forms of hieroglyphic writing were also discovered on vessels of the Shang (Yin) type.

In the XII-III centuries. BC e. The mythological stage in the development of ideas about nature ends. Exercises are developing Taoism And Confucianism, which revealed the theme of the world and man in it in a new way. The mythological deities themselves began to be perceived more conventionally, but the image of a person became more specific. In vessels of the V-III centuries. BC e. Whole scenes of labor, hunting, and harvesting appear.

Chinese culture reached its highest rise during the reign of the Zhou dynasty, which lasted about 8 centuries (until the 3rd century BC).

Gate of Mind Cultivation

After the fall of the Han Dynasty, the unity of the empire was disrupted for several centuries. Only in the VI century. BC e. its new unification takes place. During this period, waging wars of conquest, the Chinese penetrated far beyond the borders of their empire, influencing the culture of other peoples, at the same time experiencing their influence. An example of this is penetration from India Buddhism, which attracted people of that time by its appeal to the inner spiritual world of man, by the thought of the inner kinship of all living things.. Along with it, new types of religious buildings appear.

In China, the first pagodas and rock monasteries are being built, consisting of hundreds of large and small grottoes in the thickness of the rock. The visitor walked along shaky floorings and looked inside the grottoes, from where Buddha statues looked at him. Some giants, reaching 15-17 meters in height, can still be seen due to the collapse of the front walls of the grottoes. The paintings of temples of that time amaze with the inspiration of the masters in depicting Buddhist subjects. In the Tang era (VII-X centuries), landscape motifs appeared in paintings. Nature becomes not only a background, but also an object of worship.

This attitude towards landscape was preserved in the Song era (X-XIII centuries), when this genre of painting became highest expression spiritual quests of Chinese artists. According to the beliefs of that time, the world - man and nature - is united in its laws. Its essence is in the interaction of two principles - “yin” (water) and “yang” (mountains).

In 1127 the entire north of the country was captured nomadic tribes Jurchens. The rulers of China had to retreat to the south, where a new capital, Hangzhou, was founded. The shame of defeat and longing for the abandoned lands largely determined the mood of the art of the 12th-13th centuries. Nature became, as it were, the only consolation in sadness, and new features arose in its interpretation. It becomes more proportionate to the person.

The development of Chinese architecture was manifested in the construction of palaces, monasteries, and temples. Materials other than stone were wood, bamboo, reed, clay, as well as terracotta, faience, and porcelain.

The coming to power of the first emperor from the Han dynasty (from 206 BC to 220 AD) was of great importance not only for the unification of a huge empire, the borders of which have not changed since then, but also for the development of Chinese culture that has become the basis of the Chinese worldview until today.

Works of art depict glorious moments of past history, extol virtues, and condemn vices. At the same time, creators of works of art often draw their inspiration from nature.

The Han era (3rd century BC - 3rd century AD) is famous for its funeral complexes, to which “roads of spirits” led, framed by statues of mythological animals. Underground burials, decorated with reliefs and paintings, were also marked by above-ground buildings, which were decorated inside with flat reliefs. If in general the development of art is characterized by a tendency towards abstraction from reality, then during the Han period special attention was focused on depicting the surrounding reality.

As a result of the penetration of Buddhism from India, new types of religious buildings appeared in China. These are, first of all, pagodas, which are towers made of brick or stone, having several tiers with protruding roofs, and in addition, cave temples similar to Indian ones.

Just like in India, in China, under the influence of bamboo structures, some the architectural forms took on a peculiar character, for example, the corners of the roof were raised, and the roof itself turned out to be slightly bent.

At the beginning of our chronology, new large cities arise, and the construction of palaces, which were entire complexes of buildings with pavilions, gates and pools in the middle of architecturally elaborate parks, again became an important task. The Chinese are characterized by a special love for nature, manifested in a sensitive attitude towards it and the perception of it as an important part of the living environment. This is expressed in the construction of temples, united in symmetrical complexes, surrounded by landscaped gardens, in which there are separate pagodas.

In addition to cities, temples and palaces, hydraulic structures, canals and dams were built.

Great Wall of China

An outstanding technical structure was the Great Wall of China, the construction of which took several generations.

The Great Wall of China is the oldest surviving monument of Chinese architecture, dating back earlier than the 3rd century. BC e., when (after 228 BC) the Emperor Qing-shi Huang-ti, who unified China, built part of the Great Wall of China. The ability to produce such complex buildings in the 3rd century. BC e. indicates a long preceding period of development of Chinese architecture.

Throughout Chinese history, there have been three main walls, each 10,000 li (5,000 km) long. Some sections of the defensive wall had been built even before that in various small kingdoms in the north that were at war with each other.

Emperor Qin Shi Huang (or Qin Shi Huang), considered one of the greatest despots in history, recruited an army of peasants, soldiers, criminals and political prisoners to renovate the damaged areas and connect these areas. This is how a continuous rampart arose, running through the mountains along the border of his empire.

The wall was intended as a fortification against the raids of the warlike nomadic Mongols from the north, and also, in all likelihood, as proof of the power and greatness of the emperor. Thousands of Confucian scholars, branded and shackled, ensured the timely completion of the work. In the popular consciousness, this great building appeared as a “wailing wall.” One ancient legend tells that the wall was destroyed by tears loving wife for her husband who died at a construction site.

The Second Wall was built during the reign of the Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 AD) in order to protect against the Huns, who made regular raids into Chinese territory and damaged the Wall built by Qin Shi Huang. In 607 AD. During the Sui Dynasty, the structure was reconstructed. During this period, a million workers were employed in construction, and half of them died.

About 1 million people were already sent to the construction of the third wall (Ming Dynasty 1368-1644), then the wall acquired its present appearance. During construction, special attention was paid to ensuring that each of the towers of the Wall was visible from the two neighboring ones. From its watchtowers, with the help of drums, smoke signals, and at night - with the help of signal lights - it was possible to disseminate information throughout the country with a speed never before possible. Moreover, all the way from the Wall to central city, at a distance of one horse transition from each other there were small strongholds where a messenger with urgent news could change horses.

The total length of the wall exceeds 5 thousand km. It is laid along the highest and most inaccessible mountain ranges, like a ridge grown into their stone flesh. Designed to protect the borders of the Chinese Empire from nomads raiding from the north, the Great Wall of China stretched along numerous treeless hills from the Mongolian borders almost to Beijing.

The thoughtful decision made her almost impregnable. The name “wall” is not accurate, since in reality it was a fortification structure 6.5 m high and 6 m wide at the base (at the top it narrowed by 1 m), which included a defensive rampart and watchtowers placed every 120 m. The outer cladding is made of stone and brick, and the inside is filled with compacted clay, the total volume of which is about 180 million square meters. m.

The military significance of the wall, when it was staffed with troops corresponding to its length, became enormous. The wall was not only a rampart, but also a road. Its width is 5.5 meters; this allowed five infantrymen to march side by side or five cavalrymen to ride side by side. Even today, its average height is nine meters, and the height of the watchtowers is twelve meters. Over the centuries, however, it was abandoned and collapsed. In the recent past, parts of it were restored for tourists.

The Great Wall of China is a symbol of China for both the Chinese and foreigners. At the entrance to the restored part of the wall there is an inscription, The Wall is truly a symbol of China for both the Chinese themselves and foreigners. At the entrance to the restored part of the Wall you can see an inscription made by order of Mao Zedong - “If you have not visited the Great Wall of China, you are not a real Chinese.” The Great Wall of China is an extremely impressive structure. It has withstood the influence of wind and bad weather for many centuries.

Architecture of the Han period (III century BC - III century AD)

We have a clearer idea of ​​the architecture of the Han period (III century BC - III century AD). Thanks to clay models of houses, towers, etc. found in burials, we got an idea of ​​the type of buildings of this era. In 1933, a whole ensemble of clay models of dwellings was excavated in Henan province, giving a vivid idea of ​​the estate of a small feudal lord of the Han era. We can judge the true architecture of the Han era only from the paired stone pylons that were placed in front of some burial sites.

Entirely preserved architectural monuments date back no earlier than the 6th century. n. e. From this period until the 20th century. works of Chinese architecture can be divided into two main chronological groups.

To the first group include architectural monuments from the 6th to the 17th centuries; The main features of the style of these monuments are monumentality and the predominance of constructive forms over the decorative side. In the monuments of the last three centuries, architecture loses its monumental character; the significance of the decorative and ornamental element is enhanced; finally, there is an overload of buildings with ornamental details, crushing and fragmentation of architectural forms. The architecture of the first period reflects the ideology of feudal society; architecture of the second period - the ideology of the bourgeoisie, emerging in the depths of the feudal formation, and from the 15th century. The influence of European architecture can already be traced.

The oldest monument of Chinese architecture that has come down to us in its entirety and is precisely dated (523) is Songyuesi Pagoda in Songshan, in Henan province. It is built on a twelve-sided base and has fifteen floors; ends in a small stupa. In this last circumstance and in the use of arches over niches of a pointed horseshoe shape, one can see the influence of Indian art, introduced along with Buddhism, adopted by the top of the aristocracy.

Architecture of the Tang era (618-906), when China experienced great development of literature and art, it is also represented mainly by pagodas. The pagodas of this period are characterized by majestic and monumental forms, the originality of their verticalism, softened by a number of horizontal projections. The materials used to build pagodas in this era are stone and brick.

An example of stone pagodas is the one built in 681. three-story pagoda in Xiang-ji-si, near Xianfu. This pagoda is distinguished by its simplicity and austerity of form, devoid of decoration, except for the teeth on the cornices. One of the most remarkable brick pagodas is “ Big Wild Goose Pagoda", built in 652. This pagoda stands on a high terrace and is up to 60 m high. Its general appearance resembles an elongated pyramid with a truncated top. The impressive effect of the "Wild Geese Tower" is achieved by well-balanced proportions, a massive form, enhanced by the position of the pagoda on a natural elevation.

Architecture of the Song period (960-1280) It is also represented exclusively by pagodas. Other types of architecture of the Song era have not reached us. A characteristic feature of the Song period are iron and bronze pagodas, which represent a unique feature of Chinese architecture. Dating back to the 10th century. the thirteen-story iron pagoda at Tan-yang-hsiang on the Yangtze provides a number of new features of the little-studied southern Chinese style. In particular, one can note in it a previously unobserved motif of a roof, bent in parts, over individual floors, and a more detailed ornamental cutting of the edges.

About architecture of the Ming era (XIV - XVII centuries) we have a much better idea, since from this era, especially from its second half, quite a significant number of not only pagodas, but also other religious and civil buildings have reached us. Architecture of the Ming period to the second half XVI V. is still of a strict monumental nature and largely repeats earlier examples, but with late XVI V. enters a new phase, which lasts from the 17th to the 19th centuries. and is usually characterized as “associated with bourgeois ideology,” and starting from the 18th century. and with influences from European art.

The Temple of Heaven was built during the Ming Dynasty in 1420, when Emperor Yong Le moved the capital of China from Nanjing to Beijing. Over the next five centuries, imperial prayer services with sacrifices to the glory of Heaven were held here on the day of the winter solstice with a request to send down a good harvest.

Particularly characteristic of this period is the widespread development of the architectural ensemble; a residential estate, temple, palace, etc. are a well-organized architectural complex, planned according to a certain system. The rules of “geomancy” established by religious tradition were of great importance both in the construction of individual buildings and in the planning of architectural ensembles. The so-called “ feng shui"(wind and water).

This was the name of a pseudoscientific system that teaches how temples, cemeteries and residential buildings should be located in order to place them under the protection of favorable conditions and protect them from harmful ones. According to the rules of geomancy, the orientation of buildings along the north-south axis, accepted since ancient times, was established with the most important parts facing south - in the direction of the most favored nation.

“Feng Shui” did not lose its importance even after the introduction of Buddhism and played a role in the construction of buildings throughout the feudal period. The slowness of changes in the architectural type of buildings was also determined by strict state regulation of construction.

Analyzing the architectural ensembles of the early Ming era, let us first consider the plan Beijing (Beiping), organized according to the same basic principle as the residential, palace and temple complexes. Beijing is a typical example of a large Chinese city, which was formed in its main features by the beginning of the 15th century. Beijing is a complex of three cities, surrounded by a common wall up to 12 m high and up to 20-24 m wide.

These cities are as follows: the Manchurian, or Tatar city, the length of whose walls reaches 23 km, inside it there is the so-called forbidden city, surrounded by a special wall, with the entire mass of buildings of the former imperial palace; and finally, the third is a Chinese city, the length of whose walls is about 16 km; in the middle of it, along the north-south axis, runs the main street; in its southern part there are extensive temple ensembles located among shady parks: the Temple of Heaven and the Temple of Agriculture. The powerful walls of Beijing have numerous bastions, grandiose towers with gates of a simple and stately style.

Moving on to the consideration of palace ensembles, let us take for example such a complex complex as the former imperial palace in beijing, which was later imitated when planning other architectural ensembles. Here the layout along the north-south axis is observed in accordance with the rules of geomancy; on the sides of this axis there are a number of buildings, and between them there are palaces, arches, etc. The buildings are buildings with galleries on columns surrounding them; the double curved roofs of these buildings are covered with colored tiles. The architectural ensemble here is closely connected with the landscape; here everything is surrounded by the greenery of gardens, so that the structure of the architectural complex can be perceived by the viewer only when he passes through the entire ensemble.

The same architectural composition and the same type of buildings are repeated on a smaller scale in other palace and temple ensembles. Regarding temple buildings, it should be noted that Confucian, Taoist and Buddhist temples were built according to the same type.

At the end of the Ming period, approximately from Wang-Li era (1573-1619), elements of a new style are beginning to take shape in Chinese architecture. Using the example of the one founded at the beginning of the 15th century. and later, the ensemble of the former imperial palace was repeatedly rebuilt (XVII - XIX centuries), one can observe how the architecture enters a new phase, how the buildings, during reconstruction, begin to acquire complex details, elaborate ornaments, as a result of which they lose their original monumental character.

A very striking manifestation of the new style can be buildings on the sacred Buddhist mountain Wu-tai-shan, in Shanxi Province. The terrace with five bronze pagodas represents the victory of new trends in Chinese art; we see here lavishly decorated roofs, complex, bizarrely shaped stupas; Everywhere there is lace of abundant and complex ornamentation - an element of a kind of “Chinese Baroque”.

In the 18th century these decorative and ornamental trends continue in an aggravated and more developed form. At this time in China arose: construction in European style, which, however, had little influence on the further development of Chinese architecture in terms of plans and designs, but in some ways affected details, ornamentation, and decoration.

In the 40s of the XVIII century. French architects near Beiping built the summer palace Yuan-ming-yuan in the European Baroque style, of which only ruins now remain. From approximately this time, the opposite influence began - Chinese architecture on European architecture, which was felt in the 18th century. buildings “in the Chinese style”.

Auguste Choisy. History of architecture. Auguste Choisy. Histoire De L'Architecture

The flow of influences, the direction of which we traced from Mesopotamia to Persia and from Persia to India, did not stop there: the history of Chinese art does not at all stand alone in the overall picture of the development of architecture. Chinese architecture, apparently, is connected with Mesopotamia. In turn, the influence of Chinese art on other countries, despite China's tendency towards isolation, was extremely widespread, and this should be taken into account. Since ancient times, as a result of trade relations, Chinese ornamental forms also spread along with Chinese products. Thanks to the common Buddhist religion, constant relations between China and India were established over several centuries, which were reflected in architecture; in short, China has never been a world completely closed in on itself.

The Forbidden City in the center of Beijing, the main palace complex of Chinese emperors from the 15th to the beginning of the 20th century. Ming era drawing

Note: The hypothesis about the Babylonian origin of Chinese culture was put forward in the 70s of the 19th century. French scientist Therrien de Lacoupery. This superficial and unsubstantiated theory is currently not supported by anyone. Nowadays, the prevailing opinion in science is that the bulk of the Chinese population has lived in China since ancient times. This is confirmed by the results of recent excavations. Excavations by the Swedish scientist Anderson were carried out in the early 20s of the 20th century. (See his work “An Earby Chinese Culture.” Peking. 1923). Stone tools, painted ceramics made using a potter's wheel were found; a culture of the third millennium BC dating back to the Neolithic period was discovered.

Historically, trade relations between China and the West can be established no earlier than in the 3rd century. BC e. The era of the Han Dynasty (III century BC to III century AD) includes trade relations between China and Central Asia, Persia of the Arsacid era, with India and Rome. The first acquaintance of the Chinese with Buddhism dates back to the middle of the 1st century. n. e., but Buddhism received any significant spread in China only starting from the 3rd century. n. e.

Along with the history of Chinese art, we will also look at the art of Japan that grew out of it. Japanese architecture is more graceful and free in its forms, but, apparently, has the same constructive techniques as Chinese art. The uniqueness of each people was manifested only in the particular application of these methods.

Note: Despite the fact that the architecture of China and Japan has some common features, and that China in other periods had a significant influence on the development of Japanese art and Japanese architecture, Choisy’s attempt to consider the art of China and Japan together cannot be considered correct. The art of each country should be considered on the basis of studying the socio-economic development of a given country, in connection with other manifestations of ideology: religion, literature, etc.

CONSTRUCTIVE TECHNIQUES

In China, as in Ancient India, almost exclusively wooden buildings are built. This happens not because there is a shortage of stone, but due to the abundance of resin-rich forest species suitable for construction. Wooden architecture best suits the utilitarian worldview of a country that does not look into the future. In Japan, with its volcanic soil, where buildings are constantly threatened by tremors, wood construction is quite natural. In both countries, stone and brick are used only for parts of buildings exposed to dampness.

USING STONE AND BRICK

The Japanese, who have at their disposal mainly stones of volcanic origin, that is, stones without a layered structure, use predominantly polygonal masonry. The Chinese, having rocks that split into layers, usually use this property for proper laying in rows.

In Japan, courses of masonry are rarely horizontal. In a longitudinal section, the masonry is a curve, concave towards the ground. A form of this kind was considered a guarantee against earthquakes; however, it is possible that in Japan, as in Egypt, this form was simply the result of the use of string to level the masonry.

Rice. 126

China and Japan are countries with a highly developed ceramic industry; For a long time, brick production there has reached rare perfection. Back in the 3rd century BC. BC, when European peoples used exclusively unbaked bricks laid on clay, minor parts of the Great Wall of China were built from baked bricks or, at least, faced with baked bricks on a layer of clay as a mortar. When constructing the walls of Chinese houses, solid brickwork is rarely used; hollow walls have a dual advantage: they require less building materials and better protect against sudden temperature fluctuations. Figure 126 depicts, according to Chambers' description, a method of wall masonry used in Canton until the 18th century.

Note: Excavations by the Swedish scientist Andersen in the 20s of the XX century. The presence of painted pottery has been established as early as the third millennium BC. White ceramics with a “thunder line” decoration, as on bronzes of the same era, date back to the second millennium. From the Han era to our time, one can trace the continuous change in the style and technique of Chinese ceramics, which, along with Greek, is the most outstanding type of this branch of applied art.

The wedge vault, alien to India, has been used in China for a long time. Two examples of its use at the gates of Beijing date back to the 13th century, which corresponds to the testimony of Marco Polo. But, apparently, the Chinese only knew the box vault; the spherical vault, that is, the dome, was probably completely unknown to them.

WOODEN STRUCTURES AND COLORS

Masonry is usually limited to the foundations of houses; the body of the building is made of wood. In Japan, in order to protect against earthquakes, the wooden parts of the building are left separate from the stone foundation: the wooden structure rests on its foundation, without being connected to it in any way. A characteristic feature of Japanese and Chinese wooden architecture, which distinguishes it from the architecture of other countries we have studied, are inclined floors.

In Egypt, Persia, even in India, roofs are usually terraces, poorly suited for water drainage. China, with its rainy climate, requires roofs that provide complete drainage for rainwater.

China is the first country in Asia to systematically begin to use roofs with steep slopes. In simple buildings, the roofs are covered with thatch, shingles or bamboo trunks, split and laid one on top of the other like grooved tiles.

Rice. 127

Structures of greater importance are covered with tiles ( figure 127), the shape of which, having a profile in the form of a French letter S, greatly simplifies installation. To protect against the destructive effects of wind, the tiles are laid on a layer of mortar, and for even greater strength, the outer seams are also covered with mortar, forming small rollers B. In all cases, lathing with a larger or smaller angle of inclination is needed to support the roof.

In China and Japan, lathing is used from two types of materials: from tree trunks with a fibrous structure or from wood species with hollow trunks, such as bamboo. For ordinary sheathing, only materials of the first kind are suitable, and since tree trunks usually bend more or less under the influence of the winds that exist in these countries, curved lines play a significant role in these structures. As for bamboo, it is only suitable for lathing, made by strapping - a kind of architectural wickerwork, which is widespread throughout East Asia from Japan to the islands of Oceania.

Bamboo structures.- Let's consider, first of all, structures made of bamboo, i.e., made of reed, the durable part of which is only the outer shell. On Figure 128 shows methods of linking the main parts of the structure: pillar, tie and horizontal beam; the top of the post has the shape of a “fork”, the teeth of which pass through the tightening and at the same time hold the longitudinal crossbar; the rafter legs are attached with a rope placed on through tenons.

When trunks with hollow wood are used instead of hollow bamboo trunks, the connection is made by means of a through cut A and, for stability of the corners, it is secured with struts made of flexible wood.

Rice. 128 Rice. 129

In light structures, built from small wooden parts, the walls are formed from posts dug into the ground and connected by transverse struts, secured with simple ropes; The roof structure of such buildings, in addition to rafters and sheathing, also includes oblique ties that divide it into triangles or serve as corner rafters that form the ridge of the roof. Just look at figure 129 to understand how easily this type of construction allows not only to remove the roof ridge, but also to leave a gap R, intended simultaneously for ventilation and lighting.

In small buildings, the roof structure is reduced to the elements shown in figure 130: corner rafters A, horizontal tie S and sheathing of poles. These latter rest with one end against the rafter leg A, the other against the tie S; It should be noted that the tie tied with a rope cannot be in the same plane as the rafters. As a result, the sheathing cannot form a flat slope, and a concave curved line is inevitably formed, raised towards the corners.

Rice. 130

The raised edges of the roof (a bizarre shape so characteristic of Chinese and Japanese roofs) are the result of a fastening system using ropes, which does not allow the tie-rods and rafters to be assembled on the same plane. The taste of the builder could emphasize this feature of purely geometric origin, but imagination did not play any role in the creation.

Note: The curved curves of the roof are not the original covering in Chinese architecture and do not at all reproduce the roof of a nomadic tent, as some scholars have argued. As we see from clay models of Han era dwellings found during burial excavations, the roofs of houses in this era were not yet curved, so curved roofs appeared later than the Han era and, apparently, not earlier than the Tang era (618-907 AD .).

Wooden structures carpentry work.- Wooden structures, in which instead of thin trunks, solid or hollow, a material processed by carpentry is used, nevertheless they are influenced by bamboo structures, representing almost their variety. On Figure 131 Several examples are given, borrowed from the Chinese treatise “On the Art of Construction” (Kong Ching-tso-fa).

Rice. 131

Support structure- usually made of round timber, consists of vertical posts connected by means of tenons to horizontal purlins. There are no inclined connections that prevent the deformation of our wooden structures. The only guarantee of stability is the strength of the spikes. The stability of our wooden structures is ensured by triangular joints that are not subject to deformation; The Chinese, for this purpose, resort to rigid rectangular structures.

Thus, instead of one pillar held in a vertical position with the help of struts, we have ( see figure 131) paired risers, such as P and P, connected in their upper part by a T beam and thus forming a rigid and fairly stable system. In Figure A, the main vertical pillar R passes through two floors, and on the first floor this pillar is duplicated by an external counter pillar S, and on the second floor by an internal counter pillar N, which has a fulcrum on the ceiling beams of the lower floor.

The roof consists of round timber posts and horizontal purlins of rectangular cross-section, reminiscent in form, if not in purpose, of our carpenter's headstocks, braces and transoms. The weight of the roof is transferred to crossbar B through the headstock. In turn, the weight of the crossbar B is transmitted through two posts of the tie C, which is thus loaded only at the ends. Instead of straight knurling, curved materials are often used, which are not difficult to find in China. This design is a simple connection of vertical and horizontal parts; its principle is completely different from the one on which the construction of our roofs is based.

Our truss truss has the shape of a triangle, consisting of two inclined legs connected by a transverse part - a tie; rafter legs convert gravity into obliquely directed forces, destroyed by tightening resistance; in the Chinese design, the part corresponding to our rafter leg is missing. In turn, the Chinese puff is completely different in purpose from ours. Our tightening serves as a clamp, while the Chinese one is a load-bearing part of the structure that works in bending, and therefore it is of little use for large spans, even if it is made from beams of a very large cross-section. This primitive design technique, in which the tightening works to bend, was used by all peoples of antiquity, with the exception of the Romans; even the Greeks did not know any other method.

Rice. 132 Rice. 133

On figures 132 and 133 Some details of the monumental wooden structure are depicted. Figure 132 gives an idea of ​​the structure, the gradually projecting parts of which form a kind of cantilever between the top of the pillar and the horizontal beams it supports. The corollas are successively located one above the other with a gradually increasing overhang.

Figure 132, A gives a general view of this structure; Figure 132, B- its components, namely: a pillar with grooves at the top in which the first rim is fixed, this rim itself and, finally, the second rim along with small cubic inserts located between both rims.

As a final example of timber structures in Figure 133, A the front gate is reproduced, an imitation of which we found in the Indian stupa in Sanchi. This is a door frame, the parts of which are held together using simple wedges.

Temples.- Religions that left their mark on the architecture of China followed chronologically in this order. In the primitive era there was a religion probably related to the astronomical cults of Mesopotamia.

Note: The opinion about the Babylonian origin of Chinese culture is not supported by anyone now.

The religion of Lao Tzu (Taoism) appears in the 6th century. BC e. simultaneously with the teachings of Confucius. Buddhism penetrates China in the 1st century. Christian era. Transferred from India, it fades away in the 7th century. on native soil in order to penetrate into Japan at approximately the same time and to this day establish itself among the peoples of the yellow race.

From its primitive cult, China has retained the tradition of sacrifices performed during the solstices in terraced sanctuaries reminiscent of Mesopotamian altars. Perhaps we should also see reminiscences associated with Mesopotamia in multi-story towers, images of which are found in ancient Chinese drawings, and in tower-shaped pagodas, of which the tower in Canton is the most famous.

As for the architecture associated with the religions of Lao Tzu and Confucius, it merged so much with Buddhist art that monuments of both cults can be distinguished only by the details of symbolic images.

In Japan, monuments of the ancient Shinto cult differ from Buddhist ones in the severity of their style. In general, the history of religious architecture in both Japan and China comes down to a description of Buddhist temples.

Figures 134, A and 135, A give an idea of ​​these temples, which almost always take the form of two-story pavilions: the lower floor, with windows mainly from the side of the main facade, is surrounded by a veranda with a wide porch. The second floor is covered with a lavishly constructed roof.

Rice. 134 Rice. 135

This sanctuary is surrounded by a fence with porticoes, reminiscent of a monastery, behind which there are hospitality institutions and the cells of bonzes. Wherever Buddhism flourishes, monastic life develops, and the temple enclosure almost always contains a monastery. The entrance to the fence leads through a portico, in front of which there is a gate without doors ( Figure 134, B). In the square around the sanctuary there are ponds for ablution, bells, and incense burners; Here you can see five- and even seven-story towers with balconies and canopies of bizarre and bold contours.

As with the Hindus, sacred enclosures are sometimes surrounded in turn by other enclosures, and the original temple forms, as it were, the nucleus of a group of buildings, which gradually grows as a result of subsequent additions.

On the plains of China, these buildings are arranged according to the requirements of symmetry. On the mountainous surface of Japan, the monastery courtyards rise in terraces, which gives them a special picturesqueness. Centuries-old vegetation harmonizes here with the architecture; the enclosed space is a hilly park where the temples appear in their graceful silhouettes. Hieratism here is not so narrow: the Chinese temple is of an official nature, the Japanese temple is a living individual work of art.

Tombs.- A Chinese tomb usually consists of a crypt hidden in a burial mound, lined with trees and surrounded by a fence. Near the mounds of the royal tombs, temples are erected, to which alleys bordered by colossal statues lead. At the entrance to the alley, a triumphal gate rises, like the one shown in Figure 134.

Housing.- The style of residential buildings appears to be no different from architectural style temples. The Chinese do not have that sharp distinction between civil and religious architecture that is observed among other peoples.

Just as for temples and tombs, unshakable tradition determines all the details of the location of a residential building. In China a special law establishes the forms and dimensions of the dwelling for each class, and the rules prescribed by the law seem to go back to the most remote antiquity. Reliefs from the Han Dynasty depict a house similar in appearance to a modern one: a structure in the form of a pavilion with wooden pillars and a veranda on each floor. The pillars are topped according to the pattern shown in Figure 132; the edges of the roof are curved upward, and above the ridge, animal figures emerge against the sky. From these curious images one can even determine the location of the service premises: in the basement there are kitchens; the first floor is intended for receiving guests; in the second there are rooms for women.

Note: In 1933, in Henan province, a whole ensemble of clay models of houses was excavated from a burial, giving a clear idea of ​​the composition of the estate of a small feudal lord of the Han era. This model of a small estate is kept in the Toronto Museum in Canada. It dates back to the 2nd century. n. e.; The length of the model is about 1.26 m. The estate is surrounded by a wall; a wall separates the front and back yards. The estate consists of 7 rooms: a covered entrance, a central house in which the cult of ancestors and family ceremonies take place; there is a two-story room in the backyard with a watch window and 4 side houses (bedrooms, kitchens). Here the roofs of the buildings, although sloping, are not yet curved, but straight.

Plan M (Figure 135) gives an idea of ​​urban housing. The house consists of separate pavilions separated by small gardens. The plan we have taken as a sample includes a vestibule V, a reception hall S, main hall C and service premises R. If the site on which the building is located allows, the dwelling is separated from the street by a front yard. By the decorations of the outer wall, which hides the interior of the courtyard from the street, one can determine the social status of the owner of the house.

Country housing, especially among the Japanese, consists of pavilions scattered among greenery. The main room of the pavilion - the hall for receiving guests - opens across its entire width onto a deep veranda. The remaining rooms occupy the back of the building. The entire pavilion is raised above the damp soil and rests on a foundation in which holes are left for air circulation. The walls of the building consist of plastered bamboo latticework; the ceiling consists of thin wooden boards coated with varnish, and the internal movable partitions are light frames covered with paper wallpaper. Instead of glass, transparent paper is stretched in the window frames, shutters are replaced by curtains; Everything that, due to its fragility or massiveness, could be damaged by an earthquake was eliminated.

The garden around these pavilions is an artificial landscape. There is no geometric regularity in it: winding paths, uneven soil, unexpected effects, sharp contrasts are everywhere.

Buildings of public importance and fortresses.- As an example of public buildings, we will limit ourselves to mentioning bridges, mostly wooden, sometimes hanging, that span canals in China and ravines in Japan.

In China, the main monument of military architecture is the Great Wall of China. This is a grandiose fortress wall with square towers; it was built in the 3rd century. BC e. to protect against Tatar invasions. We have very incomplete information about the details of this structure. The basis of the plans for the military architecture of Japan, which we know somewhat better, appears to be a jagged line.

Note: Here we obviously mean the nomadic neighbors of China in general, since the Tatars appeared much later. The earliest part of the Great Wall of China was built shortly after 228 BC. e. under Emperor Qing Shi Huang Di, who unified China; Later it was repeatedly completed and rebuilt.

AGES. INFLUENCES

The peoples of Western and South Asia from Mesopotamia to India, in their state structure, represented monarchies or theocracies, where any intermediary link between the supreme power and the last subject was destroyed. Therefore, the works of these countries could not be anything more than monuments intended to glorify power, before which everything else has no meaning.

China, on the contrary, is a country of middle classes; the intelligentsia, merchants, small owners occupy their definite place there and play a significant role. The architecture of China, serving utilitarian purposes, is the art of the bourgeoisie, which, even when erecting temples, is not so much concerned about the duration of their existence as about the immediate satisfaction of urgent needs.

Note: China around 1000 BC. e. entered the period of feudalism. The bourgeoisie as a class takes shape and begins to acquire known value around the 17th century. and especially during the Manchu dynasty (1644-1912). During this period, bourgeois ideology also manifested itself in art. Thus, here Choisy relates the social phenomena of recent centuries to the entire history of China, where feudal ideology played such a large role, the remnants of which have not disappeared to this day.

External influences.- Chinese chronicles have preserved memories of relations between China and the countries of Western Asia since ancient times. Pothier translated descriptions of Emperor Mu Wang's campaigns in Western Asia. And thanks to the brilliant comments we have borrowed from Fournier’s unpublished work, the route of these gaits provides the key to the sources of all influences. In the 10th century BC e., i.e. in the era of the greatest flowering of Mesopotamian culture,

My Wang occupied Mesopotamia, subjugated the Hittites, penetrated to the Mediterranean Sea and established a Chinese protectorate over Mesopotamia for 60 years. During this campaign, My Wang admired the multi-story towers and took with him the architects who were to build similar structures in China. These were probably the first examples of those terraced sanctuaries, of which the Temple of Heaven is a distant imitation and from which multi-story pagodas originated.

Note: The information reported here by Choisy from the legendary history of China and his conclusions about the Babylonian origin of Chinese culture and art must be recognized as outdated and erroneous.

The beginning of Chinese artistic culture dates back to this time. My Wang is interested in wood painting and varnish making. Lacquer decoration appears to have been inherited from the Mesopotamian industry. Glaze was as well known in Mesopotamia as it was in Egypt. The glazing techniques from which porcelain later evolved were probably taken over by China from the Mesopotamian expedition. But the attention of the Chinese conqueror in Mesopotamia is drawn not only to art: he is also fascinated by the state of science. And it was probably then that China borrowed its astronomical system from Mesopotamia. Mesopotamian philosophy amazes the emperor, and there is no doubt that from Mesopotamia came the principles of the doctrine of Lao Tzu, which developed in the 6th century, a metaphysical doctrine that corresponds so little to the positivism of the Chinese.

The era of Lao Tzu and Confucius almost coincides with the era of Sakiya Muni in India. This is the last time active life. Then for China, as for India, a period of immobility, hieraticism, and the dominance of narrow traditions begins.

In the II century. China is fenced off by the Great Wall of China and emerges from its isolation only at the beginning of our era, at a time when Buddhist propaganda resumes relations between it and India; this is when Indo-Persian elements penetrate into Chinese art.

Original elements of Chinese art and their distribution.- We have identified the role of foreign influences; Let's do the same in relation to the original genius of the Chinese people. The carpentry art of China apparently originated in this country. The sloping roof system is entirely Chinese. And the design of the rims described above is too different from the designs adopted in India in order for them to be attributed to Indian origin. We find reproductions of this design, as well as sloping roofs, with all the details on the reliefs of the first centuries of our era. Obviously, we find them there not at the first stage of their development, but we are dealing with works of art that have long been established.

Relations with India affect only the details of the ornament. Ancient decoration of a realistic nature gives way to the creativity of Hindu fantasy. This is the only result of relations between China and India, caused by a common religion and lasting 600 years. Return of India to Brahmanism in the 8th century. breaks both religious relations and the influences that mutually connected the architecture of both countries. In the same era, China transferred its art and its literature to Japan, along with the doctrines of Buddhism. At the same time, the art of China spreads to the eastern borders of the Asian continent.

Yu Yuan Gardens is an ancient architecture of the Ming and Qing dynasty in southeast China. This garden was built by the high-ranking chief Peng Yunduan in 1577. The name Yu Garden means “relaxation” or “satisfaction” in Chinese. It was built for the parents of a wealthy official so that they could enjoy the beauty. In 1760, the Yu gardens were bought by patrons of the arts, but they had to spend 20 years restoring the garden and buildings. And in the 19th century, the gardens were destroyed and only in 1956 they were restored again. Yu Yuan Gardens cover an area of ​​20 thousand square meters. meters, but it is unlikely that the numbers can convey the grandeur and beauty of the gardens, the history of which dates back to the Ming Dynasty and goes back four hundred years. Picturesque pavilions, rock gardens, ponds and monasteries, not to mention the magnificent landscapes. Architecture of ancient civilizations of America

The originality of Chinese architecture

The architecture of China has a number of traditional features unique to it, and the nature of its decoration allows Chinese buildings to be recognized all over the world.

Most of the buildings of Ancient China were built from wood, which was typical for both residential buildings and the imperial palace. The structure consisted of wooden pillars, which were connected to each other by beams, which in turn served as the foundation of the building; the structure was completed by a roof covered with tiles. The openings were filled using bamboo, clay, and bricks.

The ancient Chinese were among the first to use the “flow method” in architecture. The peculiarity of the method was that, based on the standard size of the structure, it was possible to accurately determine the size of its remaining parts, which allowed builders to manufacture separately from the overall structure of the building, and then assemble the parts on site. This method of construction allowed Chinese builders to significantly reduce the time it took to construct a building.

Note 1

Examples of this include the Forbidden City in Beijing - the imperial residence, 720 thousand square meters of which were built in just 13 years, while the construction of the dome of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence alone took about three decades.

Possessing flexibility and elasticity, wooden buildings, unlike stone ones, were more resistant to earthquakes. However, despite many advantages, wood structures turned out to be relatively short-lived and fire hazardous. Many architectural monuments were damaged or not preserved at all as a result of lightning strikes or fires.

The architecture of China is distinguished by its bright originality. Its basic principles and style developed in the third century BC. Similar to other countries of the East, it is characterized by a commitment to forms once found and fixed by tradition, a certain conservatism.

Buildings in China could be periodically rebuilt, accurately reproducing the forms of the previous structure. The main material for construction was wood. Although China is a large country with diverse climate zones, different regions may have used a variety of building materials. The humid southern regions were characterized by pile structures, while in the north brick was used. It depended on the purpose of the building (pagodas were built of stone), as well as on social status owner. The emperor in China was elevated to the rank of deity, and secular power was endowed with great power. Unlike India, temple buildings were rare in Chinese architecture.

Traditional Chinese structures are post-and-beam structures with wood infill. The wall is a thin partition and does not bear tectonic load. Despite the presence of a post-and-beam frame revealed in the external forms of the structure, Chinese architecture is atectonic: traditional Chinese palaces and temples are characterized by high roofs with strong projections. But this is precisely what constitutes one of the main features of traditional Chinese architecture and is one of its most attractive features.

Such roof shapes are associated with a love of decorative interpretation of forms, as well as with climatic conditions - the abundance of rain. The buildings were distinguished by a picturesque, bizarre silhouette, with roofs arranged in several tiers. This was a characteristic feature of pagodas. In secular buildings, several tiers of roofs indicated the high social status of their owner.

Note 2

The architecture of Ancient China is characterized by color combined with decorative elements.

The architectural forms are dynamic, the dougongs echo the silhouettes of the roofs. Paintings and sculptures of dragons were considered symbols of renewal, the protector of Chinese land and imperial power. Chinese masters loved imagery, likening and comparison, which is also typical for the art of other peoples of the East. Thus, the shape of the roof can be compared to the open wings of a flying crane. At the same time, the natural motif is subjected to a frankly decorative interpretation.

The transition from the beams to the roof was carried out using a complex system of carved brackets arranged in several tiers - dougongs, which are an important and distinctive element of traditional Chinese architecture. Light, openwork also removed the feeling of heaviness of architectural masses and pressure of ceilings. Douguns, brightly painted and covered with carvings, performed not only a constructive, but also a purely decorative function (Fig. 1).

Figure 1. Architectural painting of He Xi in the Forbidden City. Author24 - online exchange student work

At its core, the structure of Chinese buildings is extremely simple. As a rule, it is a regular-shaped quadrangle with beam floors. More complex structures were formed from individual cells of this type. They could be complemented by external porticoes. Along with the roof shape mentioned above, they contributed to the connection of buildings with the natural environment. This relationship, as well as the significant role of space in the architectural image, is an important component of the Chinese architectural style.

In the palace ensemble, vast open spaces create an atmosphere of solemnity; their paved surfaces contrast with the elegant palace buildings. The most significant buildings are distinguished by their scale and the shape of their roofs (two-tier hipped roofs, which were reserved only for the most important structures). The main chambers of the Gugun palace complex (Fig. 2) are the Hall of Supreme Harmony, the Hall of Complete Harmony and the Hall of Preserving Harmony.

Figure 2. Forbidden City in Beijing (Gugong). Author24 - online exchange of student works

Architectural sights of China

The wealth and unique style of architectural structures in China is very diverse, among them:

• Palace architecture(Forbidden City, Mountain refuge from the summer heat)
• Temples and altars(Taimiao Temple, Temple of Heaven, Altar of Earth and Cereals, Residence of the Heavenly Masters, Longmen Cave Temples, Fengxiansi Cave Temples, Mogao Caves, Yungang Caves, Putozongcheng, Nanyue Damiao, Palace of Supreme Purity, Daqin Pagoda, Baochu Pagoda, Temple of True Unity, Pagoda of Six Harmony, Porcelain Pagoda, Iron Pagoda, Tianning Temple).
• Memorial structures(Temple of Confucius, Temple of Baogong, Pailou, Steles (on a turtle pedestal)
• Tombs(Tombs of the Ming Dynasty Emperors, Hanging Coffins, Ming Changling Tomb, Tomb of Qin Shi Huang)
• Bridges(Anji Bridge, Lugou Bridge, Bao Dai Bridge, curved bridges "moon bridge")
• Fortifications(Great Wall of China, Fortress walls of the cities - Beijing (demolished), Nanjing (partially preserved), Wanping Fortress in Beijing)
• Residential buildings(Siheyuan residential complex, fortress-type residential complexes - tulou (Fujian), fortified mansions of diaolou (Guangdong), typical peasant house of northern China - fanza, heated bench - kan).

Chinese architecture reached its highest achievements during the reign of the Tang and Song dynasties (VII-XIII centuries). Monumental architecture was distinguished by clear harmony, conviviality and calm grandeur of forms. Cities were built according to a clear plan. They were powerful fortresses surrounded by high walls and deep ditches.

(1) In ancient China, the most typical house design was considered to be frame-and-post, using wood for this purpose. Wooden pillars were installed on the adobe platform, on which longitudinal transverse beams were attached, and on them was a roof covered with tiles. This frame system not only allowed Chinese architects to freely design the walls of the house, but also helped prevent the house from being destroyed during earthquakes. (2) For example, in the northern Shanxi province of China there is a Buddhist temple more than 60 meters high, the frame of which was made of wood. This pagoda is more than 900 years old, but it has been very well preserved to this day.

(3) Compared to palaces, living quarters in southern China are very modest. The houses are covered with dark gray tiled roofs, their walls are covered with white flowers, and their wooden frames are dark coffee-colored. Bamboo and bananas grow around the houses. Similar premises currently exist in the southern provinces of the country Anhui, Zhejiang, Fujian and others.

Tombs

Numerous complexes of tombs of the nobility, created at the turn of our era, are perfectly preserved, representing large underground structures, to which the so-called alleys of spirits guarding the graves led. They were framed by sculptures of animals and stone pylons. The complex also included above-ground sanctuaries - tsitans. Reliefs on the walls of burial structures depict guards in long robes, phoenixes, dragons, turtles, and tigers. The burial reliefs of the Ulyan people in Shandong (2nd century) tell about the creators of the earth and sky, about legendary heroes, about solemn processions, about the struggle between kingdoms.

The reliefs are friezes. Each slab shows a new scene, and next to it is an inscription explaining the image. Gods and people are dressed alike, but gods and kings are given larger than ordinary people . (4, 5) An example of a different style is the reliefs from Sichuan, which are distinguished by the simplicity and vividness of their images, attention to everyday scenes (harvest scenes, hunting wild ducks, theatrical and circus performances, etc.). More and more importance is being attached to the depiction of nature.

Great Wall of China

(6) The Great Wall of China is a unique monument of fortress architecture. It began to be built in the IV-III centuries. BC, when the Chinese states were forced to defend themselves from the attacks of the nomadic peoples of Central Asia. The Great Wall, like a giant snake, winds through the mountain ranges, peaks and passes of Northern China. (7) Its length exceeds 3 thousand km; approximately every 200 m there are quadrangular watchtowers with embrasures. The distance between the towers was equal to two arrow flights; it was easily shot from each side, which ensured safety. The upper plane of the wall is a wide protected road along which military units and convoys could quickly move.

Pagodas

(8, 9) The pagoda as a type of structure dates back to Indian architecture. Early pagodas, with their soft curvature and rounded lines, resemble Indian tower-shaped temples. In Buddhist monasteries, pagodas served as repositories for relics, statues, and canonical books. Many Chinese pagodas are enormous in size, reaching a height of 50 m. The best of them amaze with their almost mathematically precise and proportionate proportions; they seem to embody the spirit of Confucian wisdom. Later tower pagodas, built in honor of Buddhist saints, are characterized by slightly upwardly curved, pointed roof edges. It was believed that thanks to this shape they reliably protected against evil spirits.

More favorable conditions for the development of architecture developed in the 15th-18th centuries, when it took a leading position among the arts. The construction of the Great Wall of China dates back to this time. (10, 11) Such large cities as Beijing and Nanjing were built, wonderful palaces and temple ensembles were built. According to ancient rules, all buildings faced the south, and a straight highway crossed the city from south to north. New forms of architectural ensembles and cities are being developed. In Minsk pagodas, decorative features, fragmented forms, and an overload of details begin to predominate. With the transfer of the capital in 1421 from Nanjing to Beijing, the city was strengthened, palaces, temples and monasteries were built. The largest architectural structure of this time is the palace ensemble erected in the Forbidden City.