Classicism Classicism

Artistic style in European art of the 17th - early 19th centuries, one of the most important features of which was the appeal to forms ancient art as an ideal aesthetic standard. Continuing the traditions of the Renaissance (admiration for the ancient ideals of harmony and proportion, faith in the power of the human mind), classicism was also its original antithesis, since with the loss of Renaissance harmony, the unity of feeling and reason, the tendency to aesthetically experience the world as a harmonious whole was lost. Concepts such as society and personality, man and nature, element and consciousness, in classicism are polarized and become mutually exclusive, which brings it closer (while maintaining all the fundamental ideological and stylistic differences) with the baroque, also imbued with the consciousness of the general discord generated by the crisis of Renaissance ideals. Typically, classicism of the 17th century is distinguished. and XVIII - early XIX centuries. (the latter in foreign art history is often called neoclassicism), but in plastic arts trends of classicism emerged already in the second half of the 16th century. in Italy - in the architectural theory and practice of Palladio, theoretical treatises of Vignola, S. Serlio; more consistently - in the works of J. P. Bellori (XVII century), as well as in the aesthetic standards of the academicians of the Bologna school. However, in the 17th century. classicism, which developed in intensely polemical interaction with the Baroque, only developed into a coherent stylistic system in French artistic culture. The classicism of the 18th century, which became a pan-European style, was predominantly formed in the bosom of French artistic culture. The principles of rationalism underlying the aesthetics of classicism (the same ones that determined philosophical ideas R. Descartes and Cartesianism) determined the view of a work of art as the fruit of reason and logic, triumphing over the chaos and fluidity of sensory life. In classicism, only what is enduring and timeless has aesthetic value. Attaching great importance to the social and educational function of art, classicism puts forward new ethical norms that shape the image of its heroes: resistance to the cruelty of fate and the vicissitudes of life, subordination of the personal to the general, passions - duty, reason, the supreme interests of society, the laws of the universe. Orientation towards a rational principle, towards enduring examples also determined the normative requirements of the aesthetics of classicism, the regulation of artistic rules, a strict hierarchy of genres - from “high” (historical, mythological, religious) to “low” or “small” (landscape, portrait, still life) ; each genre had strict content boundaries and clear formal characteristics. The consolidation of the theoretical doctrines of classicism was facilitated by the activities of the Royals founded in Paris. Academies - painting and sculpture (1648) and architecture (1671).

The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by a logical layout and geometric volumetric shape. The constant appeal of the architects of classicism to the heritage of ancient architecture implied not only the use of its individual motifs and elements, but also the comprehension of the general laws of its architectonics. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms closer to antiquity than in the architecture of previous eras; in buildings it is used in such a way that it does not darken general structure structure, but becomes its subtle and restrained accompaniment. The interior of classicism is characterized by clarity of spatial divisions and softness of colors. By making extensive use of perspective effects in monumental and decorative painting, the masters of classicism fundamentally separated the illusory space from the real. The urban planning of classicism of the 17th century, genetically connected with the principles of the Renaissance and Baroque, actively developed (in the plans of fortified cities) the concept of an “ideal city” and created its own type of regular absolutist city-residence (Versailles). In the second half of the 18th century. New planning techniques are emerging that provide for the organic combination of urban development with elements of nature, the creation of open spaces that spatially merge with the street or embankment. The subtlety of laconic decor, the expediency of forms, and the inextricable connection with nature are inherent in the buildings (mainly country palaces and villas) of representatives of Palladianism in the 18th - early 19th centuries.

The tectonic clarity of the architecture of classicism corresponds to the clear delineation of plans in sculpture and painting. The plastic art of classicism, as a rule, is designed for a fixed point of view and is characterized by smoothness of forms. The moment of movement in the poses of the figures usually does not violate their plastic isolation and calm statuesqueness. In the painting of classicism, the main elements of form are line and chiaroscuro (especially in late classicism, when painting sometimes tends toward monochrome, and graphics toward pure linearity); local color clearly identifies objects and landscape plans (brown - for near, green - for middle, blue - for distant plans), which brings closer spatial composition painting to the composition of the stage area.

The founder and greatest master of classicism of the 17th century. was French artist N. Poussin, whose paintings are marked by the sublimity of their philosophical and ethical content, the harmony of rhythmic structure and color. High development in the painting of classicism of the 17th century. received an “ideal landscape” (Poussin, C. Lorrain, G. Duguay), which embodied the classicists’ dream of a “golden age” of humanity. The formation of classicism in French architecture is associated with the buildings of F. Mansart, marked by clarity of composition and order divisions. High examples of mature classicism in architecture XVII V. - eastern façade of the Louvre (C. Perrault), works by L. Levo, F. Blondel. From the second half XVII V. French classicism incorporates some elements of Baroque architecture (the palace and park of Versailles - architects J. Hardouin-Mansart, A. Le Nôtre). In the XVII - early XVIII centuries. classicism was formed in the architecture of Holland (architects J. van Kampen, P. Post), which gave rise to a particularly restrained version of it, and in the “Palladian” architecture of England (architect I. Jones), where a national version was finally formed in the works of K. Wren and others English classicism. Cross connections with French and Dutch classicism, as well as with the early Baroque, were reflected in the short, brilliant flowering of classicism in the architecture of Sweden in the late 17th and early 18th centuries. (architect N. Tessin the Younger).

In the middle of the 18th century. the principles of classicism were transformed in the spirit of Enlightenment aesthetics. In architecture, the appeal to “naturalness” put forward the requirement for constructive justification of order elements of the composition, in the interior - the development of a flexible layout for a comfortable residential building. The ideal setting for the house was the landscape of an “English” park. Huge influence on the classicism of the 18th century. had a rapid development of archaeological knowledge about Greek and Roman antiquity (the splits of Herculaneum, Pompeii, etc.); The works of I. I. Winkelman, I. V. Goethe, and F. Militsiya made their contribution to the theory of classicism. In French classicism of the 18th century. new architectural types were defined: an exquisitely intimate mansion, a ceremonial public building, an open city square (architects J. A. Gabriel, J. J. Souflot). Civil pathos and lyricism were combined in the plastic arts of J. B. Pigalle, E. M. Falconet, J. A. Houdon, in the mythological painting of J. M. Vien, and in the decorative landscapes of Y. Robert. Great Eve french revolution(1789-94) gave rise in architecture to the desire for severe simplicity, a bold search for the monumental geometricism of a new, orderless architecture (C. N. Ledoux, E. L. Bulle, J. J. Lequeu). These searches (also marked by the influence of the architectural etchings of G.B. Piranesi) served as the starting point for the later phase of classicism - Empire style. The painting of the revolutionary trend of French classicism is represented by the courageous drama of historical and portrait images J. L. David. During the years of the empire of Napoleon I, magnificent representationalism grew in architecture (C. Percier, P. F. L. Fontaine, J. F. Chalgrin). The painting of late classicism, despite the appearance of individual major masters (J. O. D. Ingres), degenerates into official apologetic or sentimental-erotic salon art.

International Center XVIII classicism- early 19th centuries became Rome, where the academic tradition dominated in art with a combination of nobility of forms and cold, abstract idealization, not uncommon for academicism ( German painter A. R. Mengs, Austrian landscape painter I. A. Koch, sculptors - Italian A. Canova, Dane B. Thorvaldsen). For German classicism of the 18th - early 19th centuries. The architecture is characterized by the strict forms of the Palladian F. W. Erdmansdorff, the “heroic” Hellenism of K. G. Langhans, D. and F. Gilly. In the work of K. F. Schinkel - the pinnacle of late German classicism in architecture - the harsh monumentality of images is combined with the search for new functional solutions. In the fine art of German classicism, contemplative in spirit, portraits of A. and V. Tischbein, mythological cardboards of A. J. Carstens, plastic works of I. G. Shadov, K. D. Rauch stand out; in decorative applied arts- furniture by D. Roentgen. In English architecture of the 18th century. The Palladian movement, closely associated with the flourishing of country park estates (architects W. Kent, J. Payne, W. Chambers), dominated. The discoveries of ancient archeology were reflected in the special elegance of the order decoration of R. Adam's buildings. At the beginning of the 19th century. In English architecture, features of the Empire style appear (J. Soane). The national achievement of English classicism in architecture was the high level of cultural design of residential estates and cities, bold urban planning initiatives in the spirit of the idea of ​​a garden city (architects J. Wood, J. Wood the Younger, J. Nash). In other arts, the graphics and sculpture of J. Flaxman are closest to classicism, in decorative and applied arts - the ceramics of J. Wedgwood and the craftsmen of the Derby factory. In the XVIII - early XIX centuries. classicism is also established in Italy (architect G. Piermarini), Spain (architect X. de Villanueva), Belgium, Eastern European countries, Scandinavia, and the USA (architects G. Jefferson, J. Hoban; painters B. West and J.S. Collie). At the end of the first third of the 19th century. the leading role of classicism is disappearing; in the second half of the 19th century. classicism is one of the pseudo-historical styles of eclecticism. At the same time, the artistic tradition of classicism comes to life in neoclassicism in the second half of the 19th - 20th centuries.

The heyday of Russian classicism dates back to the last third of the 18th - first third of the 19th centuries, although it was already the beginning of the 18th century. marked by a creative appeal (in the architecture of St. Petersburg) to the urban planning experience of French classicism of the 17th century. (the principle of symmetrical-axial planning systems). Russian classicism embodied a new historical stage in the flowering of Russian secular culture, unprecedented for Russia in scope, national pathos and ideological content. Early Russian classicism in architecture (1760-70s; J. B. Vallin-Delamot, A. F. Kokorinov, Yu. M. Felten, K. I. Blank, A. Rinaldi) still retains plastic richness and dynamics forms inherent in Baroque and Rococo. The architects of the mature period of classicism (1770-90s; V.I. Bazhenov, M.F. Kazakov, I.E. Starov) created classical types of metropolitan palace-estate and large comfortable residential building, which became models in the widespread construction of suburban noble estates and in the new, ceremonial buildings of cities. The art of the ensemble in country park estates is a major national contribution of Russian classicism to world artistic culture. In estate construction, the Russian version of Palladianism arose (N. A. Lvov), and a new type of chamber palace emerged (C. Cameron, J. Quarenghi). A feature of Russian classicism in architecture is the unprecedented scale of organized state urban planning: regular plans for more than 400 cities were developed, ensembles of the centers of Kostroma, Poltava, Tver, Yaroslavl and other cities were formed; the practice of “regulating” urban plans, as a rule, consistently combined the principles of classicism with the historically established planning structure of the old Russian city. Turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries. marked by the largest urban development achievements in both capitals. A grandiose ensemble of the center of St. Petersburg took shape (A. N. Voronikhin, A. D. Zakharov, J. Thomas de Thomon, and later K. I. Rossi). “Classical Moscow” was formed on different urban planning principles, which was built up during the period of its restoration and reconstruction after the fire of 1812 with small mansions with cozy interiors. The principles of regularity here were consistently subordinated to the general picturesque freedom spatial structure of the city. The most prominent architects of late Moscow classicism are D. I. Gilardi, O. I. Bove, A. G. Grigoriev.

In the fine arts, the development of Russian classicism is closely connected with the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts (founded in 1757). The sculpture of Russian classicism is represented by “heroic” monumental and decorative sculpture, constituting a finely thought-out synthesis with Empire architecture, monuments full of civic pathos, elegiacally enlightened tombstones, and easel sculpture (I. P. Prokofiev, F. G. Gordeev, M. I. Kozlovsky , I. P. Martos, F. F. Shchedrin, V. I. Demut-Malinovsky, S. S. Pimenov, I. I. Terebenev). Russian classicism in painting was most clearly manifested in works of historical and mythological genres (A. P. Losenko, G. I. Ugryumov, I. A. Akimov, A. I. Ivanov, A. E. Egorov, V. K. Shebuev, early A. A. Ivanov). Some features of classicism are also inherent in the subtly psychological sculptural portraits of F. I. Shubin, in painting - in the portraits of D. G. Levitsky, V. L. Borovikovsky, and in the landscapes of F. M. Matveev. In the decorative and applied arts of Russian classicism, artistic modeling and carving in architecture, bronze products, cast iron, porcelain, crystal, furniture, damask fabrics, etc. stand out. From the second third of the 19th century. For the fine art of Russian classicism, soulless, far-fetched academic schematism is becoming more and more characteristic, with which the masters of the democratic movement are fighting.

K. Lorrain. "Morning" ("Meeting of Jacob with Rachel"). 1666. Hermitage. Leningrad.

B. Thorvaldsen. "Jason." Marble. 1802 - 1803. Thorvaldson Museum. Copenhagen.

J. L. David. "Paris and Helen". 1788. Louvre. Paris.

Literature: N. N. Kovalenskaya, Russian classicism, M., 1964; Renaissance. Baroque. Classicism. The problem of styles in Western European art of the XV-XVII centuries, M., 1966; E. I. Rotenberg, Western European art XVII V., M., 1971; Artistic culture XVIII century Materials scientific conference, 1973, M., 1974; E. V. Nikolaev, Classical Moscow, M., 1975; Literary manifestos of Western European classicists, M., 1980; Dispute about the ancient and the new, (translated from French), M., 1985; Zeitier R., Klassizismus und Utopia, Stockh., 1954; Kaufmann E., Architecture in the age of Reason, Camb. (Mass.), 1955; Hautecoeur L., L"histoire de l"architecture classique en France, v. 1-7, P., 1943-57; Tapii V., Baroque et classicisme, 2nd edition, P., 1972; Greenhalgh M., The classical tradition in art, L., 1979.

Source: "Popular Art Encyclopedia." Ed. Polevoy V.M.; M.: Publishing house " Soviet encyclopedia", 1986.)

(from Latin classicus - exemplary), artistic style and direction in European art 17 – early. 19th century, an important feature of which was the appeal to the heritage of antiquity (Ancient Greece and Rome) as a norm and an ideal model. The aesthetics of classicism is characterized by rationalism, the desire to establish certain rules for creating a work, a strict hierarchy (subordination) of types and genres art. Architecture reigned in the synthesis of arts. High genres in painting, historical, religious and mythological paintings were considered, providing the viewer with heroic examples to follow; the lowest - portrait, landscape, still life, everyday painting. Each genre was prescribed strict boundaries and clearly defined formal characteristics; mixing the sublime with the base, the tragic with the comic, the heroic with the ordinary was not allowed. Classicism is a style of oppositions. Its ideologists proclaimed the superiority of the public over the personal, reason over emotions, and a sense of duty over desires. Classical works are distinguished by laconicism, clear logic of design, balance compositions.

In the development of style, two periods are distinguished: classicism of the 17th century. and neoclassicism of the second sex. 18th - first third of the 19th century. In Russia, where until the reforms of Peter I the culture remained medieval, the style manifested itself only from the end. 18th century Therefore, in Russian art history, in contrast to Western art, classicism is understood as Russian art 1760–1830s

Classicism of the 17th century. manifested itself mainly in France and established itself in confrontation with baroque. In the architecture of the building A. Palladio became a model for many masters. Classicist buildings are distinguished by the clarity of geometric shapes and clarity of layout, appeal to the motifs of ancient architecture, and above all to the order system (see art. Architectural order). Architects are increasingly using post-beam structure, in buildings the symmetry of the composition was clearly revealed, straight lines were preferred to curved ones. The walls are interpreted as smooth surfaces painted in calm colors, laconic sculptural decor emphasizes the structural elements (buildings by F. Mansart, eastern façade Louvre, created by C. Perrault; creativity of L. Levo, F. Blondel). From the second floor. 17th century French classicism incorporates more and more Baroque elements ( Versailles, architect J. Hardouin-Mansart and others, park layout - A. Lenotre).

The sculpture is dominated by balanced, closed, laconic volumes, usually designed for a fixed point of view; the carefully polished surface shines with a cool shine (F. Girardon, A. Coisevoux).
The establishment of the Royal Academy of Architecture (1671) and the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture (1648) in Paris contributed to the consolidation of the principles of classicism. The latter was headed by C. Lebrun, from 1662 the first painter of Louis XIV, who painted the Gallery of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles (1678–84). In painting, the primacy of line over color was recognized, clear drawing and statuesque forms were valued; preference was given to local (pure, unmixed) colors. The classicist system that developed at the Academy served to develop plots and allegories, glorifying the monarch (“the sun king” was associated with the god of light and patron of the arts Apollo). The most outstanding classicist painters are N. Poussin and K. Lorrain connected their life and work with Rome. Poussin interprets ancient history as a collection of heroic deeds; in the late period, the role of epically majestic landscapes increased in his paintings. Compatriot Lorrain created ideal landscapes in which the dream of a golden age came to life - an era of happy harmony between man and nature.

The emergence of neoclassicism in the 1760s. occurred in opposition to style rococo. The style was formed under the influence of ideas Enlightenment. In its development, three main periods can be distinguished: early (1760–80), mature (1780–1800) and late (1800–30), otherwise called style empire style, which developed simultaneously with romanticism. Neoclassicism became an international style, spreading in Europe and America. It was most vividly embodied in the art of Great Britain, France and Russia. Archaeological finds in the ancient Roman cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii. Pompeian motifs frescoes and items arts and crafts began to be widely used by artists. The formation of the style was also influenced by the works of the German art historian I. I. Winkelman, who considered the most important qualities ancient art "noble simplicity and calm grandeur."

In Great Britain, where back in the first third of the 18th century. architects showed interest in antiquity and the heritage of A. Palladio, the transition to neoclassicism was smooth and natural (W. Kent, J. Payne, W. Chambers). One of the founders of the style was Robert Adam, who worked with his brother James (Cadlestone Hall Castle, 1759–85). Adam's style was clearly manifested in interior design, where he used light and sophisticated ornamentation in the spirit of Pompeian frescoes and ancient Greek vase paintings(The Etruscan Room at Osterley Park Mansion, London, 1761–79). D. Wedgwood's enterprises produced ceramic tableware, decorative linings for furniture, and other decorations in the classicist style, which received European recognition. The relief models for Wedgwood were made by the sculptor and draftsman D. Flaxman.

In France, the architect J. A. Gabriel created, in the spirit of early neoclassicism, both chamber buildings, lyrical in mood ("Petit Trianon" in Versailles, 1762–68), and a new ensemble of Place Louis XV (now Concorde) in Paris, which acquired an unprecedented openness. The Church of St. Genevieve (1758–90; in the late 18th century it was turned into the Pantheon), erected by J. J. Soufflot, has a Greek cross in plan, is crowned with a huge dome and more academically and dryly reproduces ancient forms. In French sculpture of the 18th century. elements of neoclassicism appear in individual works of E. Falcone, in tombstones and busts of A. Houdon. Closer to neoclassicism are the works of O. Pazhu (Portrait of Du Barry, 1773; monument to J. L. L. Buffon, 1776), in the beginning. 19th century – D. A. Chaudet and J. Shinard, who created a type of ceremonial bust with a base in the form herms. The most significant master of French neoclassicism and Empire painting was J.L. David. The ethical ideal in David's historical paintings was distinguished by severity and uncompromisingness. In “The Oath of the Horatii” (1784), the features of late classicism acquired the clarity of a plastic formula.

Russian classicism expressed itself most fully in architecture, sculpture and historical painting. Architectural works of the transition period from Rococo to Classicism include buildings St. Petersburg Academy arts(1764–88) A. F. Kokorinova and J. B. Vallin-Delamot and the Marble Palace (1768–1785) A. Rinaldi. Early classicism is represented by the names of V.I. Bazhenova and M.F. Kazakova. Many of Bazhenov’s projects remained unfulfilled, but the master’s architectural and urban planning ideas had a significant influence on the formation of the classicism style. A distinctive feature of Bazhenov’s buildings was the subtle use national traditions and the ability to organically incorporate classicist structures into existing buildings. The Pashkov House (1784–86) is an example of a typical Moscow noble mansion that has preserved its features country estate. The purest examples of the style are the Senate building in the Moscow Kremlin (1776–87) and the Dolgoruky House (1784–90s). in Moscow, erected by Kazakov. The early stage of classicism in Russia was focused primarily on the architectural experience of France; later, the heritage of antiquity and A. Palladio (N. A. Lvov; D. Quarenghi) began to play a significant role. Mature classicism developed in the work of I.E. Starova(Tauride Palace, 1783–89) and D. Quarenghi (Alexandrovsky Palace in Tsarskoe Selo, 1792–96). In Empire architecture the beginning. 19th century architects strive for ensemble solutions.
The uniqueness of Russian classicist sculpture is that in the works of most masters (F. I. Shubin, I. P. Prokofiev, F. G. Gordeev, F. F. Shchedrin, V. I. Demut-Malinovsky, S. S. Pimenov , I.I. Terebeneva) classicism was closely intertwined with the trends of Baroque and Rococo. The ideals of classicism were expressed more clearly in monumental and decorative sculpture than in easel sculpture. Classicism found its purest expression in the works of I.P. Martos, who created high examples of classicism in the genre of tombstones (S. S. Volkonskaya, M. P. Sobakina; both - 1782). M. I. Kozlovsky in the monument to A. V. Suvorov on the Field of Mars in St. Petersburg presented the Russian commander as a mighty ancient hero with a sword in his hands, in armor and a helmet.
In painting, the ideals of classicism were most consistently expressed by the masters of historical paintings (A.P. Losenko and his students I.A. Akimov and P.I. Sokolov), in whose works plots of ancient history and mythology predominate. At the turn of the 18th–19th centuries. interest in national history is increasing (G.I. Ugryumov).
The principles of classicism as a set of formal techniques continued to be used throughout the 19th century. representatives academicism.

Instructions

Classicism as a literary movement originated in the 16th century in Italy. First of all, theoretical developments affected dramaturgy, a little less - poetry, and lastly prose. The movement received its greatest development a hundred years later in France, and it is associated with such names as Corneille, Racine, Lafontaine, Molière and others. Classicism is characterized by an orientation towards antiquity. The authors of that time believed that a writer should be guided not by inspiration, but by rules, dogmas, proven models. The text must be coherent, logical, clear and precise. How to determine whether the text in front of you belongs to the “classicism” movement.

For classicism, the position of the “trinity” is fundamentally important. There is only one action, and it takes place in one place and at one time. The only storyline unfolds in one place in - this came to classicism from antiquity.

Definition of conflict. The works of the classicism era are characterized by the confrontation between reason and feeling, duty and passions. At the same time, negative heroes are guided by emotions, while positive ones live by reason, so they win. At the same time, the positions of the heroes are very clear, only white and black. The main concept is the concept of duty, civil service.

When working with characters, the presence of stable masks is noteworthy. Necessarily present: a girl, her girlfriend, father, several suitors (at least three), and one of the suitors is positive, goodie, reflecting morality. The images are devoid of individuality, because their purpose is to capture the basic, generic characteristics of the heroes.

Definition of composition. Classicism presupposes the presence of exposition, plot, plot development, climax and denouement. At the same time, some kind of misfortune is necessarily woven into the plot, as a result of which the girl gets married to a “positive” groom.

Evidence that the text belongs to classicism strengthens the techniques of catharsis and unexpected denouement. In the first case, through negative heroes, who finds himself in a difficult situation, the reader is spiritually cleansed. In the second, the conflict is resolved by outside intervention. For example, a command from above, a manifestation of the divine will.

Classicism depicts life in an idealized way. At the same time, the task of the work is to improve society and its morals. The texts were designed for the largest possible audience, which is why the authors paid special attention to drama genres.

One of the most important elements in the composition of any literary work is the climax. The climax, as a rule, is located just before the denouement in the work.

The term "culmination" in literary criticism

This term comes from Latin word"culminatio" which has meaning highest point the tension of any forces within the work. Most often the word "culminatio" is translated as "top", "peak", "point". In a literary work, an emotional peak is most often implied.

In literary criticism, the word “climax” is usually used to designate the moment of highest tension within the development of action in a work. This is the moment when an important clash (even a decisive one) occurs between characters in the most difficult circumstances. After this collision, the plot of the work rapidly moves towards a denouement.

It is important to understand that through characters the author usually confronts ideas, the bearers of which are the characters in the works. Each of them does not appear in the work by chance, but precisely for the purpose of promoting their own idea and opposing the main idea (it can often coincide with the author’s idea).

Complex climax in the work

Depending on the complexity of the work, the number of characters, the ideas involved, the conflicts created, the culmination of the work may become more complicated. In some long novels there are several climaxes. As a rule, this applies to epic novels (those that describe the lives of several generations). Vivid such works are the novels “War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy, " Quiet Don» Sholokhov.

Not only an epic novel, but also less voluminous works can have a complex climax. Their compositional complexity can be explained by ideological fullness, large number storylines and actors. In any case, the climax always plays a significant role in the reader's perception of the text. The climax can radically change the relationships within the text and the reader’s attitude towards the characters and the development of the story.

The climax is an integral part of the composition of any story.

The climax usually follows one or more complications of the text. The climax may be followed by a denouement, or the ending may coincide with the climax. This ending is often called “open”. The climax reveals the essence of the problem of the entire work. This rule applies to all types of literary text, from fairy tales, fables to major literary works.

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Tip 3: How to highlight the key features of the character in a novel

The ability to identify the key features of the characters in works helps when writing essays at school and serves as good preparation for the Unified State Exam in literature. For analysis artistic image It is important to follow a certain order of actions and draw up a plan correctly. Careful observation of the means of creating images used by the author and competent generalization of the collected material will help to most fully and accurately characterize literary characters.

Significant means of depicting an image

The artistic image is created by the author through a variety of image means. Start identifying key features by determining the hero’s place in the system of other characters in the novel: main, secondary or extra-stage. Minor characters give the opportunity to reveal the main thing and are in the background. Off-stage perform official functions.

Literary images often have prototypes. It is known that the prototype of the young charming Natasha Rostova was the beloved brother L.N. Tolstoy Tanya Bers. Ostap Bender Ilf and Petrov appeared thanks to Odessa resident Osip Shor, who was prone to adventure. Establish the presence of a prototype actor analyzed novel.

Observe the main means of depicting the hero, thanks to which you will get an idea of ​​the key features of the image. These include:

1. Portrait description - description of appearance (face, figure, gait, etc.). Clothing, manner of speaking and bearing indicate social status. Changes in facial expressions, postures and gestures are evidence of emotional experiences. The writer’s attitude towards his hero is expressed through the portrait.


2. The main features are revealed in actions and attitude towards the environment. The character can be simple: a negative or positive hero. Complex is contradictory and paradoxical; it is characterized by various features. The owner of such a character is constantly developing spiritually, is in search of his own life path. Behavior indicates humanity or inhumanity and deserves condemnation or empathy. Living conditions are directly related to the manifestation of different character traits.


3. Speech in classical versions of works embodies the character’s thoughts and serves as a means of communication with others. It helps establish social origin. Indicates mental abilities and internal qualities.


4. Artistic detail can very accurately and vividly replace large descriptions. The artist of words endows this detail with emotional and semantic load. For example, M.A. Sholokhov for disclosure state of mind of his hero Andrei Sokolov, the main attention is paid to “eyes, as if sprinkled with ashes.”


5. The writer’s choice of first and last name is usually not random. A name can indicate human essence, predetermine actions and fate. Various options indicate personal qualities, contain hints for understanding key character traits (Anna, Anka and Nyuska). The surname of the main character of the novel F.M. Dostoevsky “Crime and Punishment” - Raskolnikov. Dissenters are people who have separated and rejected the main direction. Initially, Rodion Raskolnikov’s theory contradicted the laws of life and morality, and therefore separated him from those around him.


6. Direct and indirect author's characteristics of the hero of the novel also indicate the key features of the image he created.

Literary types

To more fully understand the character's image, determine his attitude to a certain literary type. Classical ones are characterized by maximum typicality. Heroes are divided strictly into positive and negative. Such types are usually found in tragedies and comedies of the classic era. The ability to experience, introspection and emotional contemplation is inherent in sentimental heroes. An example would be young Werther from Goethe's novel. The romantic image appeared as a result of the reflection in art of the rebellious human spirit. Romantic heroes do not live in reality; they are characterized by strong feelings and secret desires. Fiery passion is the main engine of action. The most striking realistic types should be considered “ little man», « extra person" Circumstances and environment have a strong influence on the behavior of characters in realistic novels.

Classicism as an artistic style

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1. Characteristics of classicism as a movement in art

Classicism Ї artistic direction in art and literature of the 17th and early 19th centuries. In many ways he opposed the Baroque with its passion, variability, and inconsistency, asserting his principles.

Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism, which were formed simultaneously with those in the philosophy of Descartes. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, “must be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself.” Of interest to classicism is only the eternal, the unchangeable - in each phenomenon it strives to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual characteristics. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art (Aristotle, Horace).

Classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high (ode, tragedy, epic) and low (comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strictly defined characteristics, the mixing of which is not allowed.

Classicism appeared in France. In the formation and development of this style, two stages can be distinguished. The first stage refers to XVII century. For the classics of this period, unsurpassed examples of artistic creativity were works of ancient art, where the ideal was order, rationality, and harmony. In their works they sought beauty and truth, clarity, harmony, completeness of construction. Second stage 1st XVIII century. It entered the history of European culture as the Age of Enlightenment or the Age of Reason. The man attached great value knowledge and believed in the ability to explain the world. The main character is a person who is ready for heroic deeds, subordinating his interests to the general ones, his spiritual impulses to the voice of reason. He is distinguished by moral steadfastness, courage, truthfulness, and devotion to duty. The rational aesthetics of classicism was reflected in all types of art.

The architecture of this period is characterized by orderliness, functionality, proportionality of parts, a tendency towards balance and symmetry, clarity of plans and constructions, and strict organization. From this point of view, the symbol of classicism is the geometric layout of the royal park at Versailles, where trees, shrubs, sculptures and fountains were located according to the laws of symmetry. The Tauride Palace, erected by I. Starov, became the standard of Russian strict classics.

In painting, the logical development of the plot, a clear balanced composition, a clear transfer of volume, the subordinate role of color with the help of chiaroscuro, and the use of local colors acquired the main importance (N. Poussin, C. Lorrain, J. David).

In the art of poetry, there was a division into “high” (tragedy, ode, epic) and “low” (comedy, fable, satire) genres. Prominent Representatives French literature P. Corneille, F. Racine, J.B. Moliere had a great influence on the formation of classicism in other countries.

An important point of this period was the creation of various academies: sciences, painting, sculpture, architecture, inscriptions, music and dance.

The artistic style of classicism (from the Latin classicus Ї “exemplary”) arose in the 17th century in France. Based on ideas about the regularity and rationality of the world order, the masters of this style “strove for clear and strict forms, harmonious patterns, and the embodiment of high moral ideals.” They considered works of ancient art to be the highest, unsurpassed examples of artistic creativity, so they developed ancient subjects and images. Classicism in many ways opposed the Baroque with its passion, variability, and inconsistency, asserting its principles in various types of art, including music. In the opera of the 18th century. classicism is represented by the works of Christoph Willibald Gluck, who created a new interpretation of this type of musical and dramatic art. The pinnacle in the development of musical classicism was the work of Joseph Haydn,

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Ludwig van Beethoven, who worked mainly in Vienna and formed a movement in musical culture second half of the 18th century XIX centuryЇ Viennese classical scale. Classicism in music is in many ways different from classicism in literature, theater or painting. In music it is impossible to rely on ancient traditions; they are almost unknown. In addition, the content of musical compositions is often associated with the world of human feelings, which are not subject to the strict control of the mind. However, the composers of the Viennese school created a very harmonious and logical system of rules for constructing a work. Thanks to such a system, the most complex feelings were clothed in a clear and perfect form. Suffering and joy became for the composer a subject of reflection, rather than experience. And if in other types of art the laws of classicism already at the beginning of the 19th century. seemed outdated to many, then in music the system of genres, forms and rules of harmony developed Viennese school, still retains its significance.

Ancient origins of classicism architecture in France during the era of absolutism

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Classicism is one of the most important trends in the art of the past, an artistic style based on normative aesthetics, requiring strict adherence to a number of rules, canons, unities...

Europe 17-19 centuries. This period showed the world many talented authors who made significant contributions to the development of art: literature, painting, sculpture, music and architecture. The trends of classicism first appeared in France, when the ancient times and the ideals of that time.

Features of classicism

The main features of this trend originate in antiquity. The authors' thinking was artistically oriented and tended towards clear, holistic expression, as well as simplicity of visual means, balance and logic of statements. Therefore, we can say that the thinking of a person in the era of classicism is rational and idealized.

If we talk about the fact that classicism is related to antiquity, then it is important to note that their similarity lay in the form, which, however, might not meet the standards that were accepted in Classical art is distinguished from others, first of all, by respect for ancient values ​​and the ability to display even when they are not relevant.

Characteristic feature classicism - ontological understanding of beauty. Here it is timeless, and therefore eternal, and much attention is also paid to the laws of harmony.

Psychologically, classicism is explained by the fact that in difficult historical periods, which are transitional and carry a lot of new things, a person strives to turn to what is unchangeable: for example, to the past. In this he finds support: the ancient Greeks are an example of rationalism in thinking, they gave humanity complete ideas about space and time, and many other phenomena in life, and did this in a simple and accessible form. Complex and florid thoughts and their presentation do not mean the clarity and specificity that humanity required in a dramatically changing world. Therefore, antiquity played an important role in the formation of classicism.

The ideas of classicism are romantic, so many are of the opinion that they are inseparable. And yet there are significant differences in them: romanticism is more divorced from reality in its ideals and ways of displaying them than classicism.

What is classicism? V. Tatarkevich tried to explain this with the help of several principles, which, in turn, were originally set out by the theorist L. B. Alberti:

1. Beauty is an objective property of real objects.
2. Beauty is order, correct composition, which is assessed by the mind.
3. Since art uses science, it must have rational discipline.
4. An image created in the direction of classicism may be real, but depicted according to the model of antiquity.

What is classicism in painting

The main feature of this direction in artistic creativity is manifested in the artist’s attitude to the work: his feelings, expressed through painting, are also subject to logic.

Among the prominent representatives are the works of N. Prussen, who painted paintings with mythological themes. Special attention what's attractive about them is the precision geometric composition and a thoughtful combination of colors. Also K. Lorrain: although the theme of his paintings differs from the works of N. Prussin (landscapes of the city’s environs), the rationalism in execution is also consistent: he harmonized them with the help of the light of the setting sun.

What is classicism in sculpture and architecture

Since in classicism ancient works were used as a model, when sculpting the authors faced a contradiction: in Ancient Greece, models were depicted naked, but now this was immoral. Artists got out of the situation in a cunning way: they depicted real people in the image of ancient gods. During Napoleon's reign, sculptors began making models of togas.

Classicism in Russia arose much later, but, nevertheless, this did not prevent talented authors from appearing in this country who worked in accordance with his ideas: Boris Orlovsky, Fedot Shubin, Ivan Martos, Mikhail Kozlovsky.

In architecture they also sought to recreate the forms inherent in antiquity. Simplicity, rigor, monumentality and logical clarity are the main features.

What is classicism in literature

The main achievement of classicism is that they were divided into hierarchical groups: among them they distinguished high (epic, tragedy, ode) and low (fable, comedy and satire).

In literature, there was a strict requirement for compliance with genre characteristics in a work.

German Klassizismus lat. classicus - first-class, exemplary) - thin. style and direction in heb. literature and art XII - early. XIX centuries, one of the important features of which was the appeal to the samples and forms of ancient literature and art as an ideal aesthetic model.

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CLASSICISM

a movement in art and literature that emerged in Europe in the 17th century. and received special development in France. The term “classicism” goes back to the Latin classicus, in its original meaning – “citizen of the highest property class”, then – “exemplary”, “perfect”. Classicism recognizes the existence of eternal laws of art and formulates fundamental principles, adherence to which is mandatory for the “correct” author (the set of classicist laws was set out by N. Boileau in his exemplary “Poetic Art” (1674). The one who mastered the norm better than others and did not departs from it in his works. An author who violates the rules was declared “unenlightened” (as the Russian classicist theorist A.P. Sumarokov called W. Shakespeare. Classicism is based on the principle of “imitation of nature,” which presupposes not truthfulness, but the plausibility of the image). . Only beautiful and sublime nature should be represented in the works. In practice, “imitation of nature”, the timeless aesthetic ideal, turned into imitation of exemplary ancient authors. True, imitation (imitatio) did not exclude ingenuity (inventio), that is, creative independence, although imitation. For a classicist author, imitation was valued much more. ancient classics was a kind of competition with them in achieving aesthetic perfection. The classicists emphasized that they were not interested in the accidental and individual, but in the constant and universal, and the ultimate goal of art was to understand human nature. Classicism preferred reason to feeling, the rational to the emotional. The poetics of classicism requires a work to be harmonious and logical in composition, simplicity of plot, and clarity of language. The literary genres of classicism were characterized by their own set of characteristics and were clearly divided. At the same time, preference was given to genres in which the personal principle gives way to the transpersonal, universally significant. Classical genres are divided into high (tragedy, epic, ode) and low (fable, comedy). Confusing them was unacceptable, although often inevitable (A.P. Sumarokov himself, the author of the programmatic “Epistole on Poetry,” was accused of the fact that his epistole came close to satire). The place in the genre hierarchy was determined by the theme: in works of high genres, heroes of myths, monarchs and great generals of antiquity acted; in works of low genres, life was depicted ordinary people. The main genre of French classicism was tragedy. It was based on a conflict between duty and passion, the number of heroes was reduced to a minimum, their speech was solemn and sublime (but not pretentious and “dark”), and the audience learned about most events related to the action, but not presented on stage, from the speeches of the messengers. The requirements for the verisimilitude of dramatic action (both tragedy and comedy), as well as imitation of Aristotle, explain the so-called. “the theory of three unities” (place, time and action, although Aristotle spoke only about the unity of time and action). According to this theory, events should take place in one place (be it a room or a street), last no more than a day and develop around one conflict. The greatest creations of French classicism, in addition to the poetic program of N. Boileau, were recognized as the tragedies of J. Racine and P. Corneille, the comedies of Molière, and the odes of F. Malherbe. The work of the latter had a great influence on the creation of Russian. odes - the main genre of Russian. classicism. In the 18th century rus. classicist writers sought to imitate French models (being likened to a French classic was a compliment, so M. V. Lomonosov was sung as the “Russian Malgerbe”, A. P. Sumarokov as “our Boileau” (or “confidant of the Boals”) and “northern Racine” ). However, only the fundamental aesthetic requirements of classicist poetics remained unshakable (genre theory, theory of three unities, theory of imitation), in particular Russian. classicists were looking for their own paths. Thus, the creator of the program “Epistles on Poetry” A.P. Sumarokov was accused by his contemporaries of blindly imitating the author of “Poetic Art” N. Boileau. Since both authors wrote about “eternal” poetic laws, this plagiarism seems justified (by the way, Boileau himself was accused of imitating Horace’s “Epistle to the Pisoes”). At the same time, some differences in the approaches of Boileau and Sumarokov are well known: Sumarokov puts the poet’s education above talent, Boileau – talent above education; Sumarokov practically excludes the important principle for Boileau of “plaire” (to like) (J. Klein). These “minor” differences are explained primarily individual characteristics Sumarokov the poet. At the same time, the impossibility of applying the “theory of three calms” by M. V. Lomonosov to French poetic practice is associated with objective reasons: Russian. poets, unlike their French exemplary predecessors, had the opportunity to use in their works the words of Russian (creating middle and low “calms”) and Old Church Slavonic (creating high and middle “calms”) languages. In addition, the accelerated development of Russian. literature in the 18th century. led to the coexistence of various literary trends (for example, sentimentalist tendencies can be observed in the works of Russian classic poets in the pre-sentimentalist period, and the sentimentalist M. N. Muravyov began as an admirer of Sumarokov’s talent and a classicist). And finally, in contrast to French classicism of the 17th century, Russian. 18th century classicism was formed under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment. Rus. the authors took into account the experience of not only Boileau, Corneille and Racine, but also their contemporary Voltaire. The emergence of “enlightenment classicism” ultimately led to the creation of our own national. variants of this direction: English, German, Russian, and not one for all European literatures. An example of this: “Weimar classicism” by J. V. Goethe and F. Schiller, which is original and unique literary phenomenon and at the same time remaining classicism. In the beginning 19th century classicism was rejected by the new literary direction- romanticism and left the stage.