The 19th century is a significant century in Russian literature. He gave the world such great names as A.S. Pushkin, M.Yu. Lermontov, N.V. Gogol, I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy... The literature of this time is clearly divided into two periods: the first half of the 19th century and the second half of the 19th century. Artistic works these periods are distinguished by ideological pathos, problematics, artistic techniques, mood.
The authors whose works constitute the classics of Russian literature of the second half of the 19th century are very different. These include A.N. Ostrovsky, I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, A.P. Chekhov.
A.N. Ostrovsky is rightfully considered a reformer who brought a lot of new things to Russian drama. His innovation was reflected in the fact that he sharply turned the Russian theater towards life and its current social and moral problems. Ostrovsky was the first to turn to the life of the Russian merchants, depicting the life and customs of this huge layer Russian society, showed what problems exist in it.
In addition, it was Ostrovsky who became the “developer” of psychological drama, showing inner world heroes, the excitement of their souls. The plays of this playwright are filled with symbolism. All these features will be continued in the plays of Chekhov and playwrights of the 20th century.
I.S. Turgenev went down in the history of not only Russian, but also world literature as an unsurpassed psychologist and artist of words. This writer is best known as the author of the novels “Fathers and Sons”, “ Noble nest", "Rudin" and others. In addition, he is the creator of prose poems, full of lyricism and deep reflections on life, and other prose works.
Defining main feature his creative path, Turgenev said: “I strove, as far as I had the strength and ability, to conscientiously and impartially portray and embody what Shakespeare called the very image and pressure of time.”
The classic managed to show in his work the purity of love, the power of friendship, passionate faith in the future of his Motherland, confidence in the strength and courage of the Russian people. Creation true artist words suggest many discoveries, and Turgenev is proof of this.
All works of F.M. Dostoevsky is artistic research man, his ideal essence, his fate and future. Dostoevsky's man is a being who has lost his integrity; he is a man in discord, in disagreement with reality and with himself. We can say that Dostoevsky's hero is a restless hero who is constantly in search of himself. This path is full of suffering, blood, sin. But this is always a thinking person trying to know himself. In his denial of both God and life, Dostoevsky’s hero is much more honest than many “believers” and “respectable” people.
Dostoevsky's characters are connected by blood to God, although they often deny him. Without knowing it themselves, they often go the way of many evangelical saints, literally “suffering” their faith.
Dostoevsky's world is the world of the “humiliated and insulted.” The writer’s gaze is turned specifically to them, exposing the life and suffering of these people. In many ways, this is why F.M. Dostoevsky is called the “great Russian humanist.”
The depiction of a person’s spiritual growth, the “dialectics of the soul” is perhaps the most characteristic in the work of L.N. Tolstoy. This artistic feature can be traced throughout the writer’s entire creative path. Tolstoy writes in such a way that it is clearly visible: the more influence on a person secular society, the poorer his inner world, a person can achieve inner harmony in communication with the people, with nature. Tolstoy is convinced that class barriers have a depressing effect on character development.
Tolstoy's heroes are no strangers to contradictions; there is a persistent internal struggle within them, but their best spiritual qualities never betray them. Natasha's intuitive spiritual sensitivity, Pierre's nobility, the analytical mind and moral beauty of Prince Andrei, the subtle soul of Princess Marya - all this unites the heroes of War and Peace, despite the individuality of each character. We can say that everyone best heroes Tolstoy is united by the richness of his spiritual world and the desire for happiness.
All works by A.P. Chekhov's works are not only very realistic, but they also contain deep philosophical meaning. “The vulgarity of a vulgar person” is what the writer fought against all his life. Protest against everyday life and philistinism is the main thing in his works. Some of the writer’s heroes strive to break out of this “vicious circle” (three sisters from play of the same name), others obediently plunge into this quagmire, gradually putting their soul to sleep (Dr. Startsev from “Ionych,” for example).
Chekhov's works are complex and very subtle. They contain several layers of meaning, which only an attentive and knowledgeable reader can reveal. All works of this Russian writer are filled with many symbols, allowing one to reveal their full depth.
Thus, Russian literature of the second half of the 19th century is very diverse and vibrant. Every writer of that time is a real figure not only in Russian, but also in world literature. Despite all the differences, all these artists are united by a love for their homeland and a desire to improve the lives of Russian people. In addition, all writers used classical traditions, creating on their basis something of their own, new, which, in turn, also became a classic.
(Symbol - from the Greek Symbolon - conventional sign)
- The central place is given to the symbol*
- The desire for a higher ideal prevails
- A poetic image is intended to express the essence of a phenomenon
- Characteristic reflection of the world in two planes: real and mystical
- Sophistication and musicality of verse
Acmeism
(From the Greek “acme” - point, highest point). The literary movement of Acmeism arose in the early 1910s and was genetically connected with symbolism. (N. Gumilyov, A. Akhmatova, S. Gorodetsky, O. Mandelstam, M. Zenkevich and V. Narbut.) The formation was influenced by M. Kuzmin’s article “On Beautiful Clarity,” published in 1910. In a programmatic article in 1913, “The Legacy of Acmeism and Symbolism,” N. Gumilyov called symbolism a “worthy father,” but emphasized that the new generation had developed a “courageously firm and clear outlook on life.”- Focus on classical poetry XIX century
- Acceptance of the earthly world in its diversity and visible concreteness
- Objectivity and clarity of images, precision of details
- In rhythm, the Acmeists used dolnik (Dolnik is a violation of the traditional regular alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables. The lines coincide in the number of stresses, but stressed and unstressed syllables are freely located in the line.), which brings the poem closer to the living colloquial speech
Futurism
Futurism - from lat. futurum, future. Genetically literary futurism closely associated with the avant-garde groups of artists of the 1910s - primarily with the groups “ Jack of Diamonds", "Donkey's Tail", "Youth Union". In 1909 in Italy, the poet F. Marinetti published the article “Manifesto of Futurism.” In 1912, the manifesto “A Slap in the Face of Public Taste” was created by Russian futurists: V. Mayakovsky, A. Kruchenykh, V. Khlebnikov: “Pushkin is more incomprehensible than hieroglyphs.” Futurism began to disintegrate already in 1915-1916.- Rebellion, anarchic worldview
- Denial of cultural traditions
- Experiments in the field of rhythm and rhyme, figurative arrangement of stanzas and lines
- Active word creation
Imagism
From lat. imago - image A literary movement in Russian poetry of the 20th century, whose representatives stated that the purpose of creativity is to create an image. Basics means of expression Imagists - metaphor, often metaphorical chains that compare various elements of two images - direct and figurative. Imagism arose in 1918, when the “Order of Imagists” was founded in Moscow. The creators of the “Order” were Anatoly Mariengof, Vadim Shershenevich and Sergei Yesenin, who was previously part of the group of new peasant poetsLiterature of the 2nd half of the 19th century is divided into 3 periods:
- Literature before the 60s (1852-66/7)
- 1868-81 (81 is an important date, since Dostoevsky dies and Alexander 2 dies)
- 1881-94
1 period
The beginning of this period was marked by the following events. In 1852, Gogol and Zhukovsky die, a separate edition of Turgenev’s “Notes of a Hunter” is published. In addition, in 1855, the Crimean Company ended (unsuccessfully for Russia) and the reign of Nicholas 1. This defeat is a disaster in ideological sense, since the company itself took place under the banner of Russia’s superiority over the West (an example from Leskov in “Lefty”: even if everything is fine with them in the West, but we have myrrh-streaming icons). The corruption and technical backwardness of Russia were revealed. Reforms were needed. Alexander II comes to power. Preparations for reforms begin. The beginning of the reign of Alexander II was the most liberal time of the 19th century. Politics in the full sense of the word has appeared in Russia.
In the early 60s - reforms:
- peasant
- zemstvo
- judicial (public proceedings, jury trial, competition). A competitive identification of truth appears. Portrayal of the jury in The Brothers Karamazov and the Resurrection (negative attitude).
- military
To many, the reforms seemed half-hearted. In the early 60s, the protest movement intensified, underground organizations appeared (including Earth and Freedom). The government responded with repression. As a result - 04/04/66 - Karakozov’s attempt on Alexander 2. The beginning of the reaction. Closing of many lit. magazines (Contemporary, Russian word). 68 – exit Crime and Punishment. Great novels begin in Russian literature. The end of this era.
Cultural traits that were formed during this time.
It's question time. Everything was questioned and discussed, from the peasant question to women's emancipation. The figure of a publicist appears who can give an answer to everything (Chernyshevsky, Leskov). Politics appears (in the 50s) and disappears (60s).
Another new character- commoner. Begins to play an important role in literature and public life. There is a gap between the cultural elite and the authorities. In the 50s, the government tried to overcome it. For example, Grand Duke Constantine organized expeditions to various provinces to recruit sailors. Ostrovsky, Leskov and others were involved there, but nothing much came of it.
Power is unevenly distributed between these 2 groups:
- physical, above the body - in the bureaucracy
- over the minds and souls - among the intellectual elite
It can be noted that this era is distinguished by the absence of a great state. figures, commanders (well, except for Skobelev). The fact is that every culture is a field of struggle for prestige. At this time, it was more prestigious to become a publicist and revolutionary than a minister.
Russian society was divided into left (radicals) and right.
The left was carried away by positivism (Feuerbach): the rejection of metaphysics and transcendence, the occupation appearance things, natural sciences - what can be known. 50-60 is generally the time of hobby natural sciences(remember Bazarov from Fathers and Sons). In the 60s, Bram’s work “The Life of Animals” was translated, everyone read it. There is a lot of amateurism, but it gives impetus to science: Sechenov, Pavlov, Mechnikov, Kovalevskaya.
For the right and moderate liberals, the main science was history. Archives were opened, historical magazines and plays began to be published. There was a lot of fuss and amateurism, but historical schools grew - Kostomarov, Soloviev.
The main literary institute remained magazine. An important metamorphosis: permission to publish a magazine with socio-political news. All the magazines took advantage of this. Literature coexists with politics. They demanded from her public issues and problems of Russia. life. Magazines differ in political position. Purely literary controversy no longer imaginable. In 1856, a split occurred in Sovremennik, as Chernyshevsky arrived, brought Dobrolyubov, and a conflict occurred with old employees (Turinev, Gomarov). The “Library for Reading” and “Notes of the Fatherland” (Druzhinin, Botkin, Turgenev) continue to exist. Another old magazine is “Moskvityanin”. Was Slavophile. New, young edition (Apollo-Grigoriev, Ostrovsky). There they formulate the doctrine of pochvennism. New magazines are also appearing. The most important:
1) “Russian Messenger”. 56 years old, Katkov. First liberal, then conservative. It existed for a very long time. All the novels of Dostoevsky, Tolstoy, Leskov were published here.
2) Russian word (left edge; Blagosvetlov G. E.). This magazine was associated with nihilists. Pisarev collaborated here.
3) “Time” and “Epoch” in the early 60s (magazines of the Dostoevsky brothers)
All sorts of Slavophiles (Mayak, Dom. conversation, Day, etc.) ??
Literature was read almost exclusively in magazines.
2nd period
The era of great novels begins (with Crime and Punishment); with the death of Dostoevsky, this era ends. The assassination attempt of Karakozov, the closure of radical leftist magazines, the beginning of the reaction. 1868 is very important because this is the year when the first populist works and organizations appear. One of the most notorious events of the late 60s was the Nechaev affair, which Dostoevsky quite reliably reflected in The Possessed. Members of the Nechaev group killed one of the members of the organization, cat. I decided to get out of it and possibly report it to the police. The case had a wide resonance. The government acted very wisely by making the case public. At the same time, the first populist circles appeared, and already in the 70s. the campaign among the people begins (1874). This outing to the people ended rather disastrously: most of these people were arrested. The authorities reacted to all this extremely inadequately: huge sentences, hard labor. The next wave was called “life with the people,” but this enterprise ended in much the same way. Gradually, those involved in this popular movement began to experience a feeling close to despair or even bitterness. And now the second “Land and Freedom” is being created. By 1878, it split into two organizations, which differed in fact: one was the “Black Redistribution” (it was they who professed peaceful measures to change the situation), the second, “People’s Will,” was inclined to violent actions. The wave of terror that swept Russia began in 1878, when Vera Zasulich shot at Governor Trepov. She was acquitted, and the revolutionaries were not tried again by a jury. On the one hand, this event showed society’s sympathy for terror, on the other, the duality of power. The next terrorist act is associated with the name of Kravchinsky, who committed an attempt on the life of the chief gendarme (he killed him with a dagger, jumped into the cab and disappeared). Since 1878, the terrorist struggle begins. The government responded in kind, and also issued an appeal to the people asking them to counteract moral terror. The terrorists had a clear moral advantage.
History is gradually being replaced by historiosophy. Danilevsky “Russia and Europe” - this treatise largely precedes Spengler. During the same period, what is politely called Russian philosophy began to take shape (late 70s). 1870-1871 – “ABC social sciences"Bervy, "the situation of social classes in Russia." At the center of the idea of progress is the labor of the population, the people, and the fruits of this progress are enjoyed by a very narrow circle of people, while those through whose efforts this is accomplished receive nothing. Lavrov coined the term “critically thinking person" So this person must realize the situation and feel indebted to the people. The idea of community and the belief that the Russian people already have such an institution and can come to socialism, bypassing capitalism.
In 1868, Nekrasov began editing Otechestvennye zapiski. Throughout the 70s. This magazine is moderately populist. Their ally and competitor is Delo magazine. Vestnik Evropy tried to take a rather liberal position. The centrist position traditionally turned out to be the most vulnerable. Important phenomenon– “A Writer’s Diary”, published by Dostoevsky. Slavophile ephemeral publications continued to appear and were quickly closed. Lit level Critics were very low.
This is still the time of prose, era great novel . As for dramaturgy, it’s about the same as it was. What could be called Ostrovsky’s theater is taking shape. Nobody still reads poetry. Only one person could gain popularity - Nekrasov (and his epigones). The flourishing of revolutionary poetry.
3rd period
1880s politically one of the most boring eras. The reign of Alexander 3 the Peacemaker, during which Russia did not wage a single war. A time of intellectual decline and stagnation. The only new intellectual passion is Social Darwinism. Literature as an institution is characterized by the decline of the thick magazine. Chekhov is indicative in this sense: for a long time he did not publish in a thick magazine and did not consider it necessary. But small-scale journalism is flourishing. Big Idea Fatigue: Writers give up the moral right to teach someone. No heroic characters are created; the place of novels is taken short story or a story (again, Chekhov, Korolenko, Garshin). Interest in poetry is awakened. The main figure of the era in this regard was the poet Nadson, who enjoyed enormous popularity. At the same time, there are no new forms. There was no brightness of talents. Garshin is an interesting and tragic fate. He took part in the Balkan War, which greatly affected him. A model Russian intellectual. It is Garshin who is depicted in the face of the son killed by Ivan the Terrible. He committed suicide. His entire legacy is a 200-page book. The feeling is secondary in relation to everything that has already been written. G. had a conscious attitude: the priority of ethics over aesthetics. Another characteristic figure is Korolenko. The writer is so-so, but a good person.
The 19th century is a significant century in Russian literature. He gave the world such great names as A.S. Pushkin, M.Yu. Lermontov, N.V. Gogol, I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy... The literature of this time is clearly divided into two periods: the first half of the 19th century and the second half of the 19th century. The artistic works of these periods are distinguished by ideological pathos, problematics, artistic techniques, and mood.
A.N. Ostrovsky is rightfully considered a reformer who brought a lot of new things to Russian drama. His innovation was reflected in the fact that he sharply turned the Russian theater towards life and its current social and moral problems. Ostrovsky was the first to turn to the life of the Russian merchants, described the life and customs of this huge layer of Russian society, and showed what problems exist in it.
In addition, it was Ostrovsky who became the “developer” of psychological drama, showing the inner world of the characters and the emotions of their souls. The plays of this playwright are filled with symbolism. All these features will be continued in the plays of Chekhov and playwrights of the 20th century.
I.S. Turgenev went down in the history of not only Russian, but also world literature as an unsurpassed psychologist and artist of words. This writer is known primarily as the author of the novels “Fathers and Sons”, “The Noble Nest”, “Rudin” and others. In addition, he is the creator of prose poems, full of lyricism and deep reflections on life, and other prose works.
Defining the main feature of his creative path, Turgenev said: “I strove, as far as I had the strength and ability, to conscientiously and impartially portray and embody what Shakespeare called the very image and pressure of time.”
The classic managed to show in his work the purity of love, the power of friendship, passionate faith in the future of his Motherland, confidence in the strength and courage of the Russian people. The work of a true artist of words involves many discoveries, and Turgenev is proof of this.
All works of F.M. Dostoevsky is an artistic study of man, his ideal essence, his fate and future. Dostoevsky's man is a being who has lost his integrity; he is a man in discord, in disagreement with reality and with himself. We can say that Dostoevsky's hero is a restless hero who is constantly in search of himself. This path is full of suffering, blood, sin. But this is always a thinking person trying to know himself. In his denial of both God and life, Dostoevsky’s hero is much more honest than many “believers” and “respectable” people.
Dostoevsky's characters are connected by blood to God, although they often deny him. Without knowing it themselves, they often go the way of many evangelical saints, literally “suffering” their faith.
Dostoevsky's world is the world of the “humiliated and insulted.” The writer’s gaze is turned specifically to them, exposing the life and suffering of these people. In many ways, this is why F.M. Dostoevsky is called the “great Russian humanist.”
The depiction of a person’s spiritual growth, the “dialectics of the soul” is perhaps the most characteristic in the work of L.N. Tolstoy. This artistic feature can be traced throughout the writer’s entire creative career. Tolstoy writes in such a way that it is clearly visible: the more a person is influenced by secular society, the poorer his inner world is; a person can achieve inner harmony in communication with the people, with nature. Tolstoy is convinced that class barriers have a depressing effect on character development.
Tolstoy's heroes are no strangers to contradictions; there is a persistent internal struggle within them, but their best spiritual qualities never betray them. Natasha's intuitive spiritual sensitivity, Pierre's nobility, the analytical mind and moral beauty of Prince Andrei, the subtle soul of Princess Marya - all this unites the heroes of War and Peace, despite the individuality of each character. We can say that all of Tolstoy’s best heroes are united by the richness of their spiritual world and the desire for happiness.
All works by A.P. Chekhov's works are not only very realistic, but they also contain a deep philosophical meaning. “The vulgarity of a vulgar person” is what the writer fought against all his life. Protest against everyday life and philistinism is the main thing in his works. Some of the writer’s heroes strive to break out of this “vicious circle” (three sisters from the play of the same name), others obediently plunge into this quagmire, gradually putting their soul to sleep (Doctor Startsev from “Ionych,” for example).
Chekhov's works are complex and very subtle. They contain several layers of meaning, which only an attentive and knowledgeable reader can reveal. All works of this Russian writer are filled with many symbols, allowing one to reveal their full depth.
Thus, Russian literature of the second half of the 19th century is very diverse and vibrant. Every writer of that time is a real figure not only in Russian, but also in world literature. Despite all the differences, all these artists are united by a love for their homeland and a desire to improve the lives of Russian people. In addition, all writers used classical traditions, creating on their basis something of their own, new, which, in turn, also became a classic.
The 19th century gave birth large number Russian talented prose writers and poets. Their works quickly burst into the world and took their rightful place in it. The work of many authors around the world was influenced by them. General characteristics Russian literature of the 19th century has become the subject of study in a separate section in literary criticism. Undoubtedly, the prerequisites for such a rapid cultural rise were events in political and social life.
Story
The main trends in art and literature are formed under the influence historical events. If in the 18th century social life in Russia was relatively measured, the next century included many important vicissitudes that influenced not only the further development of society and politics, but also the formation of new trends and directions in literature.
The striking historical milestones of this period were the war with Turkey, the invasion of Napoleonic army, the execution of oppositionists, the abolition of serfdom and many other events. All of them are reflected in art and culture. A general description of Russian literature of the 19th century cannot do without mentioning the creation of new stylistic norms. The genius of the art of words was A.S. Pushkin. This great century begins with his work.
Literary language
The main merit of the brilliant Russian poet was the creation of new poetic forms, stylistic devices and unique, previously unused plots. Pushkin managed to achieve this thanks to comprehensive development and excellent education. One day he set himself the goal of achieving all the peaks in education. And he achieved it by the age of thirty-seven. Pushkin's heroes became atypical and new for that time. The image of Tatyana Larina combines beauty, intelligence and characteristics of the Russian soul. This literary type There were no analogues in our literature before.
Answering the question: “What is the general characteristic of Russian literature of the 19th century?”, a person with at least basic philological knowledge will remember such names as Pushkin, Chekhov, Dostoevsky. But it was the author of “Eugene Onegin” who made a revolution in Russian literature.
Romanticism
This concept originates from Western medieval epic. But to 19th century it acquired new shades. Originating in Germany, romanticism penetrated into the work of Russian authors. In prose, this direction is characterized by a desire for mystical motives and folk legends. Poetry traces the desire to transform life for the better and the chanting folk heroes. The opposition and their tragic end became fertile ground for poetic creativity.
The general characteristics of Russian literature of the 19th century are marked by romantic moods in the lyrics, which were quite often found in the poems of Pushkin and other poets of his galaxy.
As for prose, new forms of the story have appeared here, among which an important place is occupied by fantasy genre. Vivid examples romantic prose - early works Nikolai Gogol.
Sentimentalism
With the development of this direction, Russian literature of the 19th century begins. General prose- this is sensuality and emphasis on the reader's perception. Sentimentalism penetrated into Russian literature at the end of the 18th century. Karamzin became the founder of the Russian tradition in this genre. In the 19th century he gained a number of followers.
Satirical prose
It was at this time that satirical and journalistic works appeared. This trend can be traced primarily in the work of Gogol. Starting your creative journey with a description small homeland, this author later moved on to general Russian social topics. It is difficult today to imagine what Russian literature of the 19th century would have been like without this master of satire. The general characteristics of his prose in this genre come down not only to a critical look at the stupidity and parasitism of the landowners. The satirical writer “traversed” almost all layers of society.
A masterpiece satirical prose became the novel “Gentlemen Golovlevs”, dedicated to the topic poor spiritual world landowners. Subsequently, the work of Saltykov-Shchedrin, like the books of many other satirical writers, became the starting point for the emergence
Realistic novel
In the second half of the century, realistic prose developed. Romantic ideals turned out to be untenable. There was a need to show the world as it really is. Dostoevsky's prose is an integral part of such a concept as Russian literature of the 19th century. General characteristics briefly represent a list important features this period and the prerequisites for the occurrence of certain phenomena. As for Dostoevsky's realistic prose, it can be characterized as follows: the stories and novels of this author became a reaction to the mood that prevailed in society in those years. Depicting prototypes of people he knew in his works, he sought to consider and solve the most pressing issues of the society in which he moved.
In the first decades, the country glorified Mikhail Kutuzov, then the romantic Decembrists. This is clearly evidenced by Russian literature of the early 19th century. The general characteristics of the end of the century can be summed up in a few words. This is a revaluation of values. It was not the fate of the entire people, but its individual representatives that came to the fore. Hence the appearance in prose of the image of the “superfluous person.”
Folk poem
In the years when realistic novel took a dominant position, poetry faded into the background. The general characteristics of the development of Russian literature of the 19th century allow us to trace long haul from dreamy poetry to true romance. In this atmosphere he creates his own brilliant work Nekrasov. But his work can hardly be classified as one of the leading genres of the mentioned period. The author combined several genres in his poem: peasant, heroic, revolutionary.
End of the century
At the end of the 19th century, one of the most readable authors became Chekhov. Despite the fact that at the beginning of his creative career, critics accused the writer of coldness towards current social topics, his works received undeniable public recognition. Continuing to develop the image " little man”, created by Pushkin, Chekhov studied the Russian soul. Various philosophical and political ideas that were developed in late XIX centuries, could not help but influence the lives of individual people.
In the late XIX literature century, revolutionary sentiments prevailed. Among the authors whose work was at the turn of the century, one of the most bright personalities became Maxim Gorky.
The general characteristics of the 19th century deserve closer attention. Each major representative of this period created his own art world, whose heroes dreamed of the impossible, fought against social evil or experienced their own small tragedy. AND main task their authors was to reflect the realities of a century rich in social and political events.
