Test. Artistic culture China.
IN Chinese art Human -
A. “the measure of all things”
B. small particle of nature
WhatNot was the center of attention of medieval masters in China?
A. nature
B. religious and philosophical movements
B. historical events
Chinese architects built monasteries
A. in the center of noisy cities
B. along the edges of roads
V. on mountain tops, in hard-to-reach places
Main view art in China
A. architecture
B. painting
What is the name of the memorial tower erected in honor of the deeds of famous people?
B. pagoda
V. mosque
Appearance pagodas
A. is simple, there is almost no decorative decoration used in it
B. contains many sculptural images of saints.
There is a collection in the imperial garden
A. rare trees and shrubs
B. stones of the most bizarre shapes
Chinese painting is represented by genres:
A. Landscape
B. Portrait
V.Still life
For what purpose did the ancient Chinese build the Chinese Wall?
A. wind protection
B. architectural decoration
B. protection from raids by nomadic tribes
The main form of religious and residential buildings in China and Japan was…
A. pavilion
B. pagoda
V. monastery
The features of Chinese landscape painting include
A. symbolism
B. painting from life
B. monochrome
Add the names of historical monuments
A. Terracotta___________
B. _________ Sky in Beijing
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MHC 10th grade
1. What Not is a world religion?
a) Islam b) Buddhism c) Confucianism
2. A world religion that arose in India - ...
a) Taoism b) paganism c) Buddhism
3. What is the name of the state of enlightenment, detachment from earthly things?
passions, achievement of the highest order absolute in Buddhism?
a) stupa b) yakshini c) nirvana
4. Which country is called the Celestial Empire?
a) India b) China c) Japan
5. Which country is called Country Rising Sun?
a) India b) China c) Japan
6. Indian civilization has
a) more than 5 thousand years
b) more than 6 thousand years
c) more than 7 thousand years
7. In Indian culture, all rituals, teachings, scientific knowledge, folklore,
mythology collected in...
a) in the Bible
b) in the Vedas
c) in the Koran
8. Translated from Arabic, “Koran” means
a) reading together
b) reading together
c) reading aloud
9. How is the word “Islam” literally translated?
a) humility
b) greatness
c) teaching
10.The One God of Muslims
a) Buddha
b) Vishnu
c) Allah
11. What Not was the center of attention of medieval masters of China and
Japan?
a) nature
b) religious and philosophical movements
c) historical events
12. Match the names of countries and their distinctive features
13. Match the names of the gods with their image and essence
a) Guardian of the world from evil forces, holdercosmic order; embodied in the form
a beautiful young man, refined and kind.
2) Vishnu
b) The king of destruction and at the same time
creative energy - appears
dancing, while his hands (from 2 to 10)
writhe in the rhythm of the cosmic cycle
life.
3) Shiva
c) God of life-giving light; depicted with 4
heads facing the 4 cardinal directions,
and 4 hands.
14. Buddhist monasteries were built
a) in the center of noisy cities
b) along the edges of roads
c) on mountain tops, in hard-to-reach places
15. The main form of art in China
a) architecture
b) painting
c) theater
16. What country is it located in? golden pavilion ?
a) China b) Japan c) India
17. What is mortar ?
a) burial mound
b) place of prostration
c) cave temple for prayer
18. What is the purpose of Taj Mahal ?
a) madrasah b) mausoleum c) mosque
19. A pagoda is...
a) a memorial tower erected in honor of the deeds of famous
people
b) medieval Chinese monastery
c) medieval Chinese house
20. For what purpose did the ancient Chinese build the Chinese Wall?
a) protection from winds
b) architectural decoration
c) protection from attacks by nomadic tribes
21. The main form of religious and residential buildings in China and Japan
was …
a) pavilion
b) pagoda
c) monastery
22. The main purpose of Japanese gardens is...
a) contemplation of nature, philosophical self-solitude
b) place of entertainment
instead of business meetings
23. Netsuke is...
b) miniature Japanese sculpture
c) type of Japanese jewelry technology
24. Which of the following Not refers to the characteristics of Chinese
landscape painting?
a) symbolism
b) painting from life
c) monochrome
25. Landscape painting of China "shan shui" means
a) mountain birds
b) fish birds
c) mountains-water
26. The phenomenon of artistic culture, philosophy, religious knowledge
in Japan -...
a) tea ceremony
b) garden
c) palace complexes
27. In what culture is it common? Kufic script ?
a) Chinese b) Arabic c) Indian
28. Select the main value of Arabic calligraphy
a) speed and quantity of writing
b) quality, “purity of writing”
c) literacy
29. Indians claim that this instrument is the goddess of eloquence,
patron of science and art gave a human voice
a) sitar
b) harp
c) wine
30. One of the most significant phenomena in fine arts
is an engraving ukiyo-e . It embodied bright and original
features of national art...
a) China
b) Japan
c) India
31. “Music for the eyes” is called...
a) oriental ornament
b) Arabic calligraphy
c) handwritten Arabic books
Write down the answers to the questions in words
32. What is the second name of Islam?
33. What is the name of the main holy book of Muslims?
34. The holy city of Muslims, facing which Muslims pray
all over the world -...
35. In which country do they wear saris?
36. Which religion prohibits depicting living beings?
37. Choose the odd one out in the row: porcelain, compass, gunpowder, fractions, paper.
38. Complete the names of historical monuments
a) Terracotta...
b) Forbidden... in Beijing
c) ... Sky in Beijing
Test on the topic “Artistic culture of the countries of the East” MHC 10th grade
ANSWERS
MHC test. 10th grade. Culture of the East. Middle Ages.
Option 1.
1. The main place in Japanese house counts:
3.tokonoma.
2. The world's largest Buddha is located in the city:
3. Yellow color in painting and architecture in China means:
1.peasant;
2.tangerine;
3.emperor.
4.Translated from Arabic, “Koran” means:
1.reading together;
2.reading together;
3.reading aloud.
5.The civilization of India includes more than:
1.5 thousand years;
2.6 thousand years;
3.7 thousand years.
6. During this period, caves, temples, and niches were built in China as places of worship:
1.Qin;
2. Wei;
3.tanskiy.
7. What is the basis of Chinese stability in culture:
1.religion;
2.writing;
8. Rounded, smooth arabesques are called:
9. In Indian culture, all rituals, teachings, scientific knowledge, folklore, mythology are collected in:
1.in the Bible;
2.in the Vedas;
3.in the Koran.
10. Japan made a cultural breakthrough in the era:
11. What type of temples was not present in India:
2. mastabas;
3. torana.
12.Cross out what is superfluous and explain why you did it:
1.Avicenna;
2.Aristotle; 3.Al-Biruni.
13.Importance of Indian culture:
MHC test. 10th grade. Culture of the East. Middle Ages.
Option 2.
1. Clear, rectangular arabesques in Muslim art are called:
2. A miniature sculpture of Japan is called:
3.kakemono.
3. One of the centers of Muslim culture is:
2. Cordoba;
3. Damascus.
4. Translated from Sanskrit, this word means “knowledge”:
2. Rig Veda;
5. The beginning of the caste system in India was laid by God:
2.Parvati;
6.The image in China on cut silk is called:
7. One of the favorite subjects of Japanese artists is:
3. Fuji.
8. Stone Age culture in Japan, when it developed within the communities themselves, is:
9.Under which king did Buddhism become the state religion in India:
1.under Ashoka;
2.under Gautama;
3.under Tamerlane.
10.Chief architectural monument in China is:
2.reliquaries;
11. Landscape painting of China “shan shui” means:
1.birds-mountains;
2.birds-fish;
3.mountain-water.
12. To get to the Muslim paradise you need to cross the saint’s bridge:
1.Mikhail;
2. Jabrail;
The Ancient East is the birthplace of the first civilizations. It is safe to say that human history begins in the East. It was here that, as a result of the Neolithic revolution, the transition to a sedentary lifestyle took place and the prerequisites for the formation of the first urban civilizations arose.
The four cultural centers of the Ancient East were centers of gravity, drawing neighboring territories into the orbit of their cultural influence. Thus, Sumer and Egypt influenced the development of the entire Middle Eastern community and the Mediterranean countries. India, which gave the world the first world religion - Buddhism, was an exporter of philosophical thought to all surrounding territories. China became the center of Far Eastern civilization, having a decisive influence on the development of Korea, Vietnam and Japan.
What unites the first four centers of world culture, which emerged over a very vast territory at approximately the same time and independently of each other? Firstly, Sumer, Egypt, India and China are river civilizations, that is, the great rivers (Tigris and Euphrates, Nile, Indus and Ganges, as well as the Yellow River) and their fertile valleys played an important role in their formation. However, the rivers not only provided favorable climatic conditions that contributed to the development of agriculture, they also concealed considerable dangers (floods, changes in the riverbed, etc.), putting people before the challenge of the great water element.
Indeed, in order to successfully exist in such conditions, society was forced not only to unite, but also to submit to a single leadership, as a result of which the first proto-state and state structures emerged.
It was during the exercise of strict central power that opportunities for large-scale construction appeared, primarily irrigation structures, dams and dams. In addition, as a result of the creation of power structures with a system of coercion
5. Culture over time
Culture of the Ancient East
Monumental construction began to develop (palaces, temples, ritual funerary structures), which led to the emergence of fortified cities and the phenomenon of urbanization. This moment can be considered the beginning of the existence of civilization.
So, the first cultures can be characterized as urban river cultures. The next important feature of the civilizations of the Ancient East is the emergence of writing in this region. It is written sources, along with archaeological material, that provide researchers with information about the life of the first civilizations, about their religious and mythological ideas and features of economic, political and social life. The cuneiform script of Mesopotamia and Egyptian hieroglyphs have been deciphered thanks to the bilinguals found, that is, translations of ancient texts into a language known to scientists, but the writing of the ancient Indian civilization is still a mystery.
Let us turn to specific historical material to describe the above cultural characteristics Ancient East.
China. The favorable natural and climatic conditions of the Yellow River valley contributed to the fact that already in the third millennium BC. e. here a “river” culture based on irrigation agriculture begins to develop.
The first open Neolithic community in China was the Yangshao culture in the middle Yellow River basin. It got its name from a village located near the site of the first finds in Henan province. The main archaeological material of this culture consists of ceramic vessels (painted and monochrome), among which both everyday utensils and vessels of a ritual nature can be distinguished. Yangshao ceramics amazes with the variety of shapes, patterns and ornaments.
The second Neolithic culture of China - Longshan - also dates back to the third millennium BC. e. It originated in Shandong province, but then spread to a wider area, including the Yellow River Valley, where it overlapped with the earlier Yangshao culture.
Archaeological finds indicate that it was Longshan that created the prerequisites for the formation of Chinese statehood. It is here, in addition to the ceramics already familiar to us, that scapular bones of various animals are found,
which were used for fortune telling. They would play an important role in the history of the next period, known as Shang-Yin.
It is worth mentioning one extremely important feature of Chinese civilization - its amazing continuity cultural traditions. Despite the change of eras and dynasties, the main civilizational guidelines were borrowed from generation to generation. This explains the stability and tradition Chinese society.
In addition, China is characterized by careful recording of events in written sources. The Chinese chronicle has an exact beginning time - this is the reign of five completely wise emperors, also dating back to the third millennium BC. e. And although the reality of this period Chinese history is not confirmed by archaeological material, its study poses challenges to researchers important problem correlation of historical reality with the chronicle history of China.
The fact is that the first emperors are replaced, according to the chronicle, by the Xia dynasty, which until recently also belonged to the realm of mythology. However, excavations of the Erlitou community caused a number of disputes among scientists, since this culture coincides with the description of the Xia dynasty in a number of characteristics.
Of course, we are not talking about their identification; Erlitou is still considered a transitional link between Neolithic cultures and ancient states, but this makes us pay more attention to the myths of China, which really provide a lot of valuable information for the reconstruction of ancient events.
For example, in the mythology of China you can find a curious story about the “lords of the cardinal directions.” It is associated with the idea of the world as a strict diagram, where space consists of a center and four sides. A similar five-member model is characteristic of the Chinese worldview; a wide variety of characteristics fit into it. For example, five elements (wood, fire, metal, water and earth), five colors (yellow, green, red, white, black), etc. were associated with the cardinal points. According to legend, the “lord of the center” Huang Di imposed tribute all other lands, but the “lord of the south” refused to submit to him. Then Huang Di gathered a huge army and set off on a punitive expedition to the south. The battle was long, both sides used tactical and magical tricks, but victory remained with the “lord of the center.” If you try to decipher this myth, you can see in it the process of unification
5. Culture over time
Culture of the Ancient East
a number of lands under the rule of the strongest ruler, which could take place both peacefully and militarily. Thus, the myth becomes a source of information about the equipment of the army, combat techniques, the role of military advisers, etc.
The first historical state formation on the territory of China is considered to be the Shang-Yin dynasty (Shang is the self-name of the people, and Yin is the name of the capital of the state. These terms are often used as synonyms). It is interesting that initially this dynasty was also considered legendary, but archaeological discoveries allowed it to receive the status of the ancestor of Chinese civilization.
In myths there is a story about how the last Emperor Xia was overthrown by the ruler Yin. The power of the once strong Xia clan was declining; the rulers were less and less interested in state affairs, preferring to spend their leisure time in idle entertainment. The last ruler, Tse-wan, was especially successful in this; the people hated him, suffering from the consequences of his recklessness.
In the east, meanwhile, a new state was rising - Shang, whose ruler, Tan-wan, sympathized with the subjects of Tse-wan. After a series of heavenly signs, the ruler of Shang led an army to the capital of Xia. Not without divine help and thanks to the support of the inhabitants, he managed to win and overthrow the cruel Tse-wan.
But in addition to legends, the history of the Shan state is represented by a number of archaeological data. At the beginning of the 20th century. The palace of the Shang ruler near Anyang was excavated. It was a rectangular building of very impressive dimensions (30 m long and 9 m wide), built on an artificial earthen platform. In addition, temple buildings, tombs, houses and even paved roads were discovered.
But the most interesting finds were oracle bones, which would have been no different from those found earlier in the Longyian culture, if not for the inscriptions, which are the oldest examples of Chinese writing. The divination technique itself was based on predicting future events from the pattern of cracks that formed on the smooth surface of the bone as a result of its heating over a fire. The inscription, as a rule, represented the question and the content of the received prediction; in addition, the date of the fortune-telling, the names of the people who performed it, and even subsequent events could be indicated, which represents a wealth of material for research.
Since the Shang Dynasty, history has been reconstructed not only from archaeological finds, but also from written sources. The writing of Chinese civilization is unique because it developed gradually over thousands of years, evolving from pictograms and ideograms of oracle bones to modern hieroglyphs. We again see confirmation of the amazing traditionalism of Chinese society, which developed its writing over thousands of years without subjecting it to radical transformation. From inscriptions on bones they moved on to recording hieroglyphs on bamboo tablets, then the first silk books appeared, and finally in the 2nd century. BC e. paper was invented, but hieroglyphics over the years never turned into alphabetic writing. By comparison, the hieroglyphs of Egypt remained the property of the early stage of civilization, giving way over time to a more practical letter system.
How else can you characterize the Shang-Yin culture? Firstly, during this period there was a transition to bronze casting production, which made it possible to improve tools and make farming more efficient. Secondly, statehood is formed, fortified cities are built, which differ from Neolithic settlements. At the head of the city is a ruler - van, which performs several important functions: in addition to the main military function, control over the administration of sacrifices and fortune telling is concentrated in his hands, he is also the organizer of large-scale production and construction (including urban planning), in addition, he is the guarantor of the welfare of the people, since he is responsible for food supply in case of crop failure or drought.
Thirdly, the religious ideas of the Chinese were formed, which were expressed in the deification of the forces of nature. The ebo was especially revered, which was considered supreme deity. The cult of ancestors, which originated in the Neolithic era, also continues to develop. A burial ritual was also associated with it - according to it, various objects that the deceased might need in the afterlife were placed in the grave.
Excavations of tombs in Anyang allow us to conclude that there was a significant wealth stratification of society during this period. In the burials of rich people and the ruling elite, bronze and ceramic products of fine workmanship are found, as well as the remains of people and animals that were supposed to accompany the deceased; the walls of the tomb were often covered
5. Culture over time
Culture of the Ancient East
carved or painted, while simpler burials contained only rough clay utensils.
The power of the Shan state faded over time, which neighboring tribes were quick to take advantage of. Nomadic people Zhou was located along the western borders of the Yin state. Gradually, the nomads switched to a sedentary lifestyle and even successfully borrowed many of the cultural achievements of their neighbors. In mythology, the Zhou conquest of the Shang territory is also seen as a result of the decline of central power, which was concentrated in the hands of an ambitious, cruel and greedy Wang, who was eventually overthrown by a more worthy representative of the Zhou dynasty.
However, the central government is rapidly declining. In the 7th-5th centuries. BC e. On the territory of China there were about 200 kingdoms, which were mostly small city-states. All of them had a certain autonomy, although they recognized the authority of the Supreme Wang.
It was at this time that the concept of sacred supreme power became widespread, according to which the van was recognized as the “son of Heaven,” its earthly incarnation. The divine origin of the wang's power was supplemented by the doctrine of the “will of Heaven” (tian-ming), according to which Heaven granted power only to a worthy person; Accordingly, with the loss of qualities important to the ruler, such a mandate to power could be lost. It was from this position that the changes of dynasties in Chinese history were explained. If one dynasty declines, the more worthy one receives the moral right and the blessing of Heaven to overthrow it.
The sacred concept of power appeared precisely at that period of history when real military power was no longer enough to keep the vast territory of the Chinese state under control. It was necessary to provide a new justification for the powers of the ruler on the basis of shared beliefs in a higher reality.
The concept of the “Son of Heaven” developed in parallel with another important Chinese self-image. All kingdoms considered themselves “middle”, located in the center of the Universe, and therefore possessing superiority over the barbarians occupying the periphery of the world. Indeed, if the sky for the Chinese had the shape of a circle, and the earth - a square, then when projecting one onto the other, a certain central area is obtained, a middle sanctified by the grace of Heaven, and four corners, to which divine protection does not extend. Ethnic
The Chinese self-awareness, also based on a sense of cultural superiority over the “barbarians of the four cardinal directions” around them.
A common written language served as a connecting link between the peoples of different kingdoms, which helped the mutual understanding of the Chinese with a variety of dialects. Literacy was a sign of education and actually opened the way to life for any member of society who mastered it. Indeed, get to public service was possible only after successfully passing a series of exams. However, despite its apparent achievability, social mobility was not developed, since literacy training was expensive and separated the poor from a prestigious government career by a “wall of hieroglyphs.”
However, the most important events of this era took place in the cultural sphere. It is during times of greatest political fragmentation that philosophical and scientific thought flourishes, unconstrained by the rigid framework of central government. It was believed that in China during the Zhanguo period, 100 schools competed, they held public debates, exchanged views, the diversity of which was not lacking.
The most important schools of this time, which influenced all subsequent Chinese philosophy, were Confucianism, Taoism, Mohism and Legalism.
Confucianism arose at the turn of the VI-V centuries. BC e. Its founder is considered to be the teacher Kun, or Confucius in Latin transcription. The basic ideas of ancient Confucianism subsequently underwent significant changes, giving rise to reformed Confucianism, which was specifically adapted to the needs of the state system.
The focus of Confucius himself was the doctrine of the ideal of personality - “ noble man", who has five virtues (de): zhen(humanity), whether(decency, performance of proper rites), And(justice), zhi(wisdom), syn(loyalty).
The early system of Confucianism appears more in an ethical than a political vein, although the concept of tian-ming (the will of Heaven), adopted from the early Zhou era, is developed by Confucius.
If the ruler of the Celestial Empire lacks one or more of the above qualities, he loses the right to supreme power, that is, the “will of Heaven” can justify a coup d’etat. However, these are extreme measures, and the virtuous
5. Culture over time
Culture of the Ancient East
The ruler, on the contrary, deserves filial piety from his subjects, since within the framework of the idea of the Celestial Empire as one big family, he is the father of all residents of the state.
The essence of the concept xiao(filial piety) boils down to the following: the younger ones must unquestioningly obey the elders, take care of them in old age and honor them after death through sacrifices.
In addition, in the teachings of Confucius, nostalgia for the bygone “golden age” is constantly heard; he recalls, not without sadness, the times when the rulers were wise (his ideal is the era of the reign of five wise emperors), officials were selfless, and the people prospered. To restore the lost order, Confucius proposed a “correction of names” (zheng ming), by which was meant the placement of all people in places in a strictly hierarchical order, which was expressed in the formula: “Let the father be the father, the son the son, the official the official, and the sovereign the sovereign.” That is, everyone has their own responsibilities corresponding to their position in the social hierarchy.
Monuments of Confucian literature are of particular interest. The Pentatecanon (Wu Jing) includes:
1. “Chronicle of Chunqiu”, which briefly records the events of the 8th-5th centuries. BC e., taking place in the state of Zhou, fragmented into small kingdoms. Confucius is credited with editing the chronicle and providing partial commentary.
2. “Shu Jing” (Book of History) - a collection of myths, legends and historical events that describe the history of China from the reign of five wise emperors to the 8th century. BC e. Tradition ascribes to Confucius the compilation of this collection from materials he personally selected.
3. “Shi Jing” (Book of Songs) is the first literary and poetic collection, which included both samples of folk art and works of court musicians.
4. “Li Ji” (Book of Rituals) - a description of the norms of human behavior both in the family and in the service, which represents detailed instructions for each situation.
5. “I Ching” (Book of Changes) is one of the most amazing monuments of ancient Chinese literature. It is based on 64 fortune-telling hexagrams - these are special graphic symbols consisting of six features of two types located one above the other - whole and interrupted - in all possible combinations. We
We remember that important issues have been resolved with the help of fortune telling in China since Neolithic antiquity; the I Ching system of fortune telling still occupies an important place in the culture of Chinese society.
Another important monument of the Confucian school is the collection “Lun Yu”, which included the thoughts and aphorisms of Confucius himself, carefully collected by his students after the death of their teacher.
He was in extreme opposition to Confucianism Taoism. The history of its origin goes back to two treatises - “Tao de Ching” (Canon of the Path and Virtue) and “Zhuang Tzu”, which contain the central theoretical concepts of the school of Tao.
The first is attributed to the legendary sage Lao Tzu. However, scientists still have not agreed on whether Lao Tzu was a real historical person or not, whether he lived during the time of Confucius or much later, and, finally, whether the authorship of the Tao Te Ching belongs to one person or whether this treatise is the result of a compilation several independent texts.
The main category of Taoism, which received a detailed description in the treatise “Tao de Ching”, is Tao (Way), which is understood in two ways. On the one hand, it is inactive, remains at rest and is inaccessible to perception, on the other hand, it is all-pervasive, acting and changing along with the world, that is, it contains the principles of transcendence and immanence. Tao is involved in the creation of the world, since it is from it that a unit arises, which in turn gives rise to the duality of yin and yang and all the dual opposites from which the whole variety of things is created.
The social ideal of Taoism was a return to the natural primitive state. Confucius also dreamed of a return to the “golden age”, but he meant the time of the reign of five wise emperors who possessed the necessary virtues, while among the Taoists the “golden age” meant the pre-state state of society, when there was no property-based social stratification, there was no power (which Taoists associate mainly with extortions of subjects and cruel wars, and therefore is condemned, while for Confucius the emperor is the guarantor of the well-being of society, the father of the entire people).
The most important concept of Taoism is the theory of non-action (wu-wei), or refusal of any purposeful activity as contrary to the natural flow of Tao. Actions must be performed spontaneously, without unnecessary reasoning and motivation, which are a serious obstacle to harmony.
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Culture of the Ancient East
Taoists opposed the deification of the sky, considering it only a part of nature, and rejected the cult of ancestors and other religious cults, including sacrifices.
The second treatise - “Zhuang Tzu” - is attributed to the philosopher Zhuang Tzu, whose reliable information about his life is practically not preserved. His focus is on developing the concept of Tao, which he understands as the basis of the world, the source of all things that are constantly changing in the cycle of the universe. His philosophical ideas are presented in the form of entertaining parables and dialogues, in which both real historical figures and mythical characters and fantastic creatures participate.
Another school that strongly opposed the Confucians during the Zhanguo period was Mohists. The views of the founder of this school, Mo Di, are set out in the treatise of the same name. The main orientation of the Mohists is practical use. The main thesis is the potential equality of all inhabitants of the Middle Kingdom. They recognized the “will of Heaven,” but considered it knowable, which means that a person’s fate is not predetermined and depends on himself. The Mohist school was very popular, as it reflected the interests of the lower strata of society and was determined to fight the ruling hereditary aristocracy and the Confucians who supported it. The Mohists put forward the idea of a comprehensive “unifying love” that would extend not only to close people - it is this kind of love that carries not personal benefit, but the mutual benefit of all members of the team.
Another school that arose in the era under consideration was also opposed to the Confucians - the school legalists, or supporters of the law. The legalists put forward the theory of a strong despotic state based on a single written law of fa (hence the self-name of the fa-jia school). According to this concept, the only creator of the law is the sovereign, whose power is not limited by anyone, therefore the legalists opposed the hereditary aristocracy, which brings them closer to coins.
In the middle of the 4th century. BC e. The ideas of the legalists were in demand in the kingdom of Qin, which at that time was one of the contenders for hegemony in the region. Minister Shang Yang, who was one of the founders and theorists of legalism, decided to implement its principles in a number of reforms aimed primarily at strengthening the central government and limiting the rights of the hereditary nobility.
Uniform legislation and legal proceedings were introduced. All hereditary titles were abolished, henceforth rank can be
was obtained only through personal merit, primarily military. It is these reforms that allow the Qin kingdom to get ahead of its rivals in its development and wage successful wars of conquest aimed at uniting politically disparate territories into a single empire.
In 238 BC. e. The young ruler Ying Zheng ascended to the Qin throne. His main task was to defeat the coalition of six large kingdoms that had gathered against the Qin kingdom. In 221, he conquered the last independent kingdom of Qi and assumed the title of Huang Di (emperor), beginning a new dynasty in the now imperial history of China.
The first empire created by military means did not last long. However, Qin Shi Huang (First Emperor Qin), thanks to an active military policy, determined the contours of the future, more durable Han Empire. In addition to uniting the “middle kingdoms,” the emperor set out on a campaign in a northern direction, with the task of defeating the Yeunnu (Huns) tribes, who were constantly launching raids on Chinese territory. Having inflicted a decisive defeat on the nomads and pushed them beyond the Yellow River, the monarch ordered the construction of a wall that would protect the Celestial Empire from the barbarians.
Thus began the construction of the Great Wall of China - the largest architectural monument in China. Its construction and strengthening took place over centuries. When constructing sections of the wall, various materials were used; at an early stage, they used mainly compacted loess with reeds and sand, coated with clay; later the wall was lined with gray stone. The average height of the Great Wall of China is 5-10 m, its upper part is formed by a number of battlements with holes for loopholes, and every 100-150 m there were watchtowers with a signal system warning of approaching danger.
After the active aggressive policy of Qin Shi Huang, the life of imperial China returned to a peaceful direction. The opening of the Western world to the Celestial Empire occurred thanks to the Chinese diplomat and traveler Zhang Jiang, who was tasked with finding military allies against the Xiongnu, but was captured, and after his release he went to travel around Central Asia. It turned out that to the west of the Middle Empire there were developed states, trade with which could be very profitable. The main direction of external
5. Culture over time
Culture of the Ancient East
From now on, China's policy has become a desire to control trade routes for successful interaction with its neighbors.
The trade road to the West was called the “Great Silk Road”. He walked from the Han capital Chang'an to the northwest through the territory of Gansu province to Dunhuang, then through Kashgar to Fergana and Bactria, from where the path diverged: one direction led to India, the other through Parthia to the Mediterranean countries.
The main item of Han export was silk, which was literally worth its weight in gold in the West. The invention of sericulture in China is attributed to the wife of the Yellow Emperor - the mythological founder of the state, who was the first of the five wise emperors. According to archaeological excavations, this branch of production appeared already in the Neolithic era. The technology of silk production was kept a closely guarded secret for a long time. China had a monopoly on the breeding of silkworm caterpillars until the 6th century, when two monks fraudulently smuggled out several larvae in hollow staves and delivered them to the court of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian.
In addition to silk, trade caravans brought iron, silver, handicrafts and lacquerware from China. The history of lacquer production in China also goes back to the Neolithic era. Even then, the unique property of varnish was noticed to give products strength and resistance to high temperatures. The sap of the lacquer tree was used in the production of a wide variety of products: from household and ritual utensils to combat equipment. Colored varnish, obtained by adding dyes to it, was used in various techniques paintings and inlays.
India. The ancient civilization of India arose in the Indus River Valley, whose alluvial soils were distinguished by fertility. This territory seems to be separated from the outside world by the largest mountain system - the Himalayas, but this barrier is not insurmountable. From ancient times, conquerors and settlers penetrated Indian lands from the northeast, trade routes passed through here, and the cultural influence of other regions spread. And finally, it was along this route that the nomadic tribes of the Indo-Aryans invaded India, whose religion determined the contours of the largest early civilization in South Asia for many years.
In the middle of the third millennium BC. e. on the fertile plain of Punjab (Pyatirechye - the area where five
largest tributaries of the Indus River, now located in Pakistan), an urban culture arose, familiar with irrigated agriculture (the Harappan culture, after the name of one of the largest excavated centers). It was discovered by archaeologists quite late (in the 20s of the 20th century).
The Indus Valley Civilization was recognized as independent and autochthonous. Its chronological framework is determined by 2300-1700. BC e. Archaeologists are studying numerous centers of this culture, the largest and most explored of which are the cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. Of particular interest is the city of Lothal on the southern border of the Harappan culture, which had access to the Arabian Sea and was probably a major seaport of that time.
The most interesting finds of the Indus civilization are the elaborately carved seals, which were most likely symbols of property and could also be used as amulets.
From the images on these seals one can draw some conclusions about the religious concepts of the representatives of this culture. In particular, we can talk about the cult of the mother goddess, which was associated with the deification of trees, as well as about the male deity, depicted in the form of a bull, the imprints of which are found on many samples.
It is difficult to say anything more specific about the early cults, since the writing that was already known in this era still remains undeciphered.
Many of the seals found have short inscriptions - no more than 20 characters. Attempts to compare this writing system with the Sumerian one were unsuccessful, so the writing of the Indus seals remains one of the main mysteries of the Harappan civilization.
Excavations of cities make it possible to judge the level of material culture of this time. The cities were built according to a single plan. In the western part there was a citadel, which was an artificial earthen area surrounded by a wall. The citadel housed public buildings. Below was the city itself. The main streets intersect at right angles, dividing the city into even rectangles - this suggests that construction was carried out according to a pre-planned plan. Residential buildings faced the streets with blank facades, and most of the interior of the house was occupied by a courtyard. The city had a sewerage system and running water. Of the large buildings given -
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From the 2nd era, we can note the palace or meeting hall in Mohenjo-Daro, the bathhouse, which most likely had a ritual purpose, and grain barns.
Construction from stone was not carried out in India for a long time. It began only during the reign of King Ashoka of the Mauryan dynasty. Before this, they built from baked bricks or simply from clay. Later, wooden buildings became widespread.
By the end of the 18th century. BC e. The Harappan culture ceased to exist. We can say for sure that she did not die as a result sudden catastrophe(although at first a version was put forward that it was destroyed by the invasion of the Indo-Aryans, but these events do not coincide in time). It gradually fell into decay, it became barbarized and deteriorated.
Several centuries later, Aryan tribes began to penetrate into Indian territory from Afghanistan through the Punjab region, eventually settling in the valley of the second major river - the Ganges. The process of settling India by alien peoples came in waves and lasted for centuries.
The main source for studying this period is the Vedas - the oldest monument religious literature of India. From the texts of the Vedas, compiled by priests and containing sacrificial formulas and hymns, one can obtain information about the way of life of the Aryan tribes. These texts, before they were written down, were passed down for a long time in oral tradition from generation to generation.
There are four Vedas in total. The first and earliest - the Rig Veda - contains hymns of praise in honor of the gods. Samaveda is a collection of ritual chants, mainly repeating the themes of the Rigveda. Yajurveda is the Veda of sacrificial formulas. Atharva Veda is the latest of the Vedas.
The division of the Vedas is not accidental; it corresponds to the division of priestly functions during the ritual of sacrifice. At the moment of the ritual, an expert in the Rig Veda invoked the deity, reciting hymns dedicated to him, an expert in Samaveda accompanied the ritual with chants, and an expert in Yajurveda accompanied it with formulas and spells.
In the most ancient part of the literary corpus - Rigve-de - the Punjab region is mainly mentioned; the name of the Ganges River is practically not found. Probably, at the time of the composition of the Rig Veda, the nomads had not yet reached the Ganges valley and had not switched to sedentary life.
Already in the early Vedic period, there was a division of society into certain groups, which was associated not only with property stratification, but primarily with the status of a member of a particular group. However, the rigid varna system received its final form in the late Vedic period, after the Aryans transitioned to a sedentary lifestyle.
At the top of the hierarchy were the priests, or brahmans, who were responsible for the preservation of cultural traditions and the conduct of rituals. They had considerable real power, since Aryan society was imbued with religiosity.
The second most influential and prestigious varna were the kshatriyas, or military kings. These are contenders for supreme power, which, however, was not yet strong. Power in the community could be elective, that is, the kshatriya could not pass it on by inheritance, or his power was limited to a meeting of elders who took part in resolving all important issues. The privilege of the kshatriya varna was the collection of tax-rent from community members, which gradually turned from a voluntary donation into a mandatory contribution. Upon transition to a sedentary lifestyle, the kshatriya received the right to distribute land.
The Varna of Vaishyas, or farmers, included all other members of the Aryan community. It is believed that it was the Vaishyas who were the main productive force, but their position was privileged by birth. The fact is that the first three varnas included the Aryans themselves, whose high status was confirmed by an initiation rite, that is, each person in childhood received initiation within his varna, after which he had the right to learn a profession and become a householder. Those who underwent such a ritual were called twice-born, in contrast to the fourth layer of Indian society, which was called varna sudra.
One should not think that the Shudras had the lowest social position. They really came from local tribes, so they differed from the Aryans even in appearance, but they voluntarily submitted to the conquerors, and therefore were included in the system of social division, which was already a lot. The same tribes that were conquered by force did not have any status in society, and therefore were in the position of slaves.
Gradually, with the development of society, a rapprochement between the varna of Vaishyas and Shudras occurs, the reason for which was both the loss of Aryan privileges by the Vaishyas, who were increasingly turning into ordinary peasants and artisans, and the increase in status
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the Shudras, already assimilated to such an extent that their origin was not blamed on them.
Interestingly, such social divisions never caused rebellion or discontent in Indian society, unlike neighboring China, which was rocked by peasant unrest from time to time. The stability of the varna system was ensured by the law of karma, which was formulated at the beginning of the first millennium BC. e. According to Indian ideas about the afterlife, with the death of a person, his existence did not cease, and after a certain time he returned to the world under new conditions. This is called the circle of samsara, or the endless series of incarnations of each individual. Moreover, it was possible to be reborn not only into a human being, but also into a demon, an insect, and, at best, into a deity.
What did such a transformation depend on? From the person himself, more precisely, from the sum of good and evil deeds that he committed in a past life (this is what is called karma). The law of karma is impersonal, it cannot be circumvented or violated, even with the help of any personified deity, therefore, his future well-being depends only on a person. But this law also has another important consequence, according to which the low social position in real life is the fault of the person himself, which means that riots against the supreme power will not only not change the situation, but will also burden the person with new karmic negativity. Therefore, all that remained for representatives of the lower strata of Indian society was to follow their own path, trying to improve their situation at least in the next life.
Religious ideas have undergone certain changes over time. Abundant sacrifices to deities, characterized by a quantitative factor (the larger the sacrifice, the greater the mercy and help from the deity), are replaced by ritual offerings, magic and symbolic relationships with the celestials come to the fore. The successful implementation of magical activities directly depends on the holiness of the brahmana performing the ritual. And holiness can be achieved through asceticism and asceticism. A new ideal arises - a hermit who has retired from the world to gain the grace of the deities through performing religious deeds.
Gradually, the texts of the ancient Veda themselves become more and more difficult for the brahmans to understand, so a commentary tradition arises, as a result of which in 800-600.
BC e. A body of commentary on the Vedas was formed, called the “Brahmanas.” Following this, the Aranyakas (Forest Books) were compiled, which contained guides for forest hermits. It was these texts that became the source of the literature of the Upanishads - the first philosophical texts Ancient India. The earliest Upanishads are usually attributed to the 8th-7th centuries. BC e., according to various sources, there are from 150 to 235.
The late Vedic period is characterized by the construction of cities in the Ganges valley, at this time the first state formations were formed, crafts and trade developed. The historical events of this time are partially reflected in the folk epics “Ramayana” and “Mahabharata”, which describe prosperous kingdoms and cities, as well as fierce wars between them.
It should be noted that ancient India was characterized by loose and weak political formations. The kingdoms were quite unstable, one dynasty replaced another, and territories often came under the control of one or the other warring party.
Meanwhile, in the social sphere of society, in the absence of a strong central government, a crisis was brewing. The Brahmin priests increasingly complicated the ritual; the fee for it became exorbitant for many members of society, who thereby found themselves, as it were, excluded from religious life. The answer to such contradictions was Buddhism - a new religion that arose at the turn of the 4th-5th centuries. BC e.
The founder of Buddhism is the Indian prince Siddhartha Gautama from the Shakya family. His father was the ruler of the small kingdom of Kapilavastu (now part of Nepal, near the border with India). According to legend, the mother of the future Buddha, Queen Maya, had a prophetic dream about a white elephant entering her womb. Interpreters considered this a sign of a great future for her child and predicted two different paths for him: he could become a wise ruler or a great teacher.
The boy's father, King Shuddhodana, dreamed of a brilliant political career for his son. He decided to isolate the prince from all the sorrows of the world that could lead him to sad thoughts. He surrounded him with the most beautiful things and people, and Siddhartha lived in luxury without worries or despondency until he was 29 years old.
However, Shuddhodana’s plans were not destined to come true; the prince was impatient to find out what kind of life goes on behind the beautiful walls.
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new palace. Having sneaked out into the city, the prince met a man with leprosy, an old man, and finally a funeral procession. Surprised by the unprecedented sight, he asked his driver about the reason for the suffering of these people. It turned out that no one in the world has yet managed to avoid such a fate: all people get sick, grow old and die. Siddhartha was extremely saddened by this answer, he decided to try to find the truth about the nature of human suffering.
A meeting with a monk helped him take the path; he left the palace and went to travel around India in search of new knowledge. Having succeeded in meditation and concentration, he realized that this path did not provide liberation from suffering. Then he decided to indulge in severe asceticism, but this path did not lead to the desired result. Then the prince sat down under the bodhi tree, swearing that he would not leave this place until he understood the cause of his suffering. 49 He spent nine days under the sacred fig tree, immersed in deep meditation, after which enlightenment descended on him and he became Buddha, or the Awakened One. He spent the rest of his life traveling around India, preaching the truth that had been revealed to him.
In his first sermon in the Deer Park of Sarnath near Benares, the Buddha told five disciples about the “four noble truths” and the “eight-fold noble path”, which allows one to achieve nirvana, thereby getting rid of the endless circle of rebirths. According to the first noble truth, our life is suffering, the second truth says that the cause of suffering is a person’s desires (whether those desires material goods, bodily pleasures or spiritual communication). The third truth affirms the possibility of eliminating the cause of suffering, and the fourth points to the path of liberation that the Buddha himself followed.
This path consists of eight steps corresponding to the main categories of Buddhist morality:
1. Correct views (they are the opposite of delusions that cause suffering).
2. Right determination, which should help the adept to renounce worldly attachments, as well as bad thoughts and intentions.
3. Correct speech, which does not allow the utterance of lies, slander or rudeness.
4. Correct Behavior- this concept includes following the principle of ahimsa, that is, non-harm to living beings -
to you, renunciation of bad deeds and compassion for all living things on earth.
5. Correct life, which prescribes using only an honest source of income to support your life.
6. The right effort that must be made to eradicate old habits that hinder progress along the path.
7. Right direction of thought, or a state of constant vigilance.
8. Right concentration is deep meditation, which can be achieved only by going through the first seven stages of the path.
Buddhism became widespread among the broad masses of the people; in addition, it was also supported among the aristocracy, which saw in the new teaching a means of combating the Brahman priesthood. Under King Ashoka, Buddhism was declared the state religion. Ashoka is the most famous representative the Mauryan dynasty, which managed to unite the kingdoms of Northern India into a single state entity.
Coming to power in 272 BC. e., Ashoka continued the active aggressive policy of his predecessors, but after defeating the small kingdom of Kalinga, which offered desperate resistance to his troops, the ruler repented of causing so many deaths and converted to Buddhism, accepting the principle of ahimsa. He also abolished animal sacrifices and replaced traditional hunting with pilgrimages to holy Buddhist sites. The king ordered the installation of special columns throughout the state on which the moral standards of Buddhism were recorded.
In addition to the strengthening of the position of Buddhism, the reign of Ashoka coincided with the flourishing of Indian architecture, which was associated with the use of stone in construction. One of the main types of Buddhist religious monuments were stupas. They were reliquaries and were built in places associated with the activities of the Buddha or his associates. The stupa symbolizes nirvana; its hemispherical shape is usually erected on funeral hills, but according to legend, this shape was suggested by the teacher himself, who, in response to a question from his students about the shape of the burial, turned his begging bowl onto a spread cloak.
The earliest and most famous monument is the stupa at Sanchi, which dates back to the reign of Ashoka, although it was expanded and rebuilt in subsequent years.
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rebuilt, and also surrounded by a stone fence with four gates - torans, oriented to the cardinal points. These stone gates date back to earlier wooden forms of construction; they are completely covered with carvings, the subjects of which were both legends about the life of Buddha and genre scenes depicting the life of ordinary people.
Buddhist art in India has developed over the centuries. The iconographic image of Buddha was developed, and schools of sculpture arose. The written Buddhist canon Tri-Pitaka was finally formed by the 1st century. BC e. and was recorded in Sri Lanka. At the turn of the century, Buddhism went beyond the borders of India and began a triumphal march through neighboring countries and regions. It spread over a vast territory, finding adherents in Confucian China, from which, in a somewhat revised form, it came to Korea and Japan, and in Central Asia, and in mountainous Tibet, and in the countries of Southeast Asia.
