Table direction classicism sentimentalism romanticism realism. Literary movements and trends: classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism, modernism (symbolism, acmeism, futurism). Main features of a literary movement

Literary method, style, or literary movement are often treated as synonyms. It is based on a similar type of artistic thinking among different writers. Sometimes a modern author does not realize in which direction he is working, and his creative method is assessed by a literary critic or critic. And it turns out that the author is a sentimentalist or an Acmeist... We present to your attention the literary movements in the table from classicism to modernity.

There have been cases in the history of literature when representatives of the writing fraternity themselves were aware of the theoretical foundations of their activities, propagated them in manifestos, and united in creative groups. For example, Russian futurists, who published the manifesto “A Slap in the Face of Public Taste” in print.

Today we are talking about the established system of literary movements of the past, which determined the features of the development of the world literary process, and are studied by literary theory. The main literary trends are:

• classicism
• sentimentalism
• romanticism
• realism
• modernism (divided into movements: symbolism, acmeism, futurism, imagism)
• socialist realism
• postmodernism

Modernity is most often associated with the concept of postmodernism, and sometimes socially active realism.

Literary trends in tables

Modernism is represented by the following literary movements:

• Symbolism

  (Symbol - from the Greek Symbolon - conventional sign)
  1. The central place is given to the symbol*
  2. The desire for a higher ideal prevails
  3. A poetic image is intended to express the essence of a phenomenon
  4. Characteristic reflection of the world in two planes: real and mystical
  5. Sophistication and musicality of verse
  The founder was D. S. Merezhkovsky, who in 1892 gave a lecture “On the causes of the decline and on new trends in modern Russian literature” (article published in 1893). Symbolists are divided into older ones ((V. Bryusov, K. Balmont, D. Merezhkovsky, 3. Gippius, F. Sologub made their debut in the 1890s) and younger ones (A. Blok, A. Bely, Vyach. Ivanov and others made their debut in the 1900s)

• Acmeism

  (From the Greek “acme” - point, highest point). The literary movement of Acmeism arose in the early 1910s and was genetically connected with symbolism. (N. Gumilyov, A. Akhmatova, S. Gorodetsky, O. Mandelstam, M. Zenkevich and V. Narbut.) The formation was influenced by M. Kuzmin’s article “On Beautiful Clarity,” published in 1910. In a programmatic article in 1913, “The Legacy of Acmeism and Symbolism,” N. Gumilyov called symbolism a “worthy father,” but emphasized that the new generation had developed a “courageously firm and clear outlook on life.”
  1. Focus on classical poetry of the 19th century
  2. Acceptance of the earthly world in its diversity and visible concreteness
  3. Objectivity and clarity of images, precision of details
  4. In rhythm, the Acmeists used dolnik (Dolnik is a violation of the traditional
  regular alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables. The lines coincide in the number of stresses, but stressed and unstressed syllables are freely located in the line.), which brings the poem closer to living colloquial speech

• Futurism

  Futurism - from lat. futurum, future. Genetically, literary futurism is closely connected with the avant-garde groups of artists of the 1910s - primarily with the groups “Jack of Diamonds”, “Donkey’s Tail”, “Youth Union”. In 1909 in Italy, the poet F. Marinetti published the article “Manifesto of Futurism.” In 1912, the manifesto “A Slap in the Face of Public Taste” was created by Russian futurists: V. Mayakovsky, A. Kruchenykh, V. Khlebnikov: “Pushkin is more incomprehensible than hieroglyphs.” Futurism began to disintegrate already in 1915-1916.
  1. Rebellion, anarchic worldview
  2. Denial of cultural traditions
  3. Experiments in the field of rhythm and rhyme, figurative arrangement of stanzas and lines
  4. Active word creation

• Imagism

  From lat. imago - image A literary movement in Russian poetry of the 20th century, whose representatives stated that the purpose of creativity is to create an image. Basics means of expression Imagists - metaphor, often metaphorical chains that compare various elements of two images - direct and figurative. Imagism arose in 1918, when the “Order of Imagists” was founded in Moscow. The creators of the “Order” were Anatoly Mariengof, Vadim Shershenevich and Sergei Yesenin, who was previously part of the group of new peasant poets

LITERARY TRENDS classicism sentimentalism romanticism realism Bogacheva Galina Gennadievna, Secondary School No. 21, Vladimir

A LITERARY DIRECTION unites writers of the same historical era, connected by a common understanding of life values ​​and aesthetic ideals, creates its own type of hero, has characteristic plots, its own style of speech and favorite genres, and has something in common with other types of art. classicism sentimentalism romanticism realism End show

REPRESENTATIVES OF DIRECTIONS IN LITERATURE classicism realism G. R. Derzhavin M. V. Lomonosov D. I. Fonvizin Moliere N. Boileau F. M. Dostoevsky A. N. Ostrovsky L. N. Tolstoy N. V. Gogol A. S. Pushkin I. S. Turgenev sentimentalism romanticism N. M. Karamzin A. N. Radishchev K. F. Ryleev V. A. Zhukovsky M. Yu. Lermontov Byron

Classicism In Russia Approval of the 18th century of absolute monarchy, end of the 17th - beginning of the 19th century Peter I Elizaveta Catherine II Petrovna Understanding in Russia the results of revolutions, opposition Realism, the search for real noble and, from the 30s of the 19th century, mixed-democratic ways of re-creating the cultures of reality HISTORICAL AGES Folk. In Russia, liberation Sentimentalism wars in Europe and America. 1773 - 1775 - Pugachev rebellion second half of the 18th century - The bourgeoisie - the new and its suppression the beginning of the 19th century social force December 14, 1825 - In Russia, the uprising Patriotic War of 1812 The Great French - on the Senate war hero The people are the true square Romanticism, the revolution is enslaved and has no rights. A feeling of disappointment, and the XVIII - early XIX - late disappointment of the century of dissatisfaction in its results in Russian society.

Approved life values Classicism Classicus (lat.) - exemplary Ш the primacy of state interests over personal ones; Ш cult of moral duty; Ш cult of reason, rationalism Sentimentalism Sentimental (English) - sensitive Ш the primacy of feeling, not reason; The highest value is the person, not the state; Ш nature is the measure of all values; Ш the idea of ​​moral equality of people Realism Realis (lat.) – material, real Ш the desire to understand man and the world; Ш discovery of the laws of human existence and society Romanticism Romantique (French) – mysterious, unreal Ш rejection of the lack of spirituality of real life; escape from existing reality and search for an ideal outside of it; Ш affirmation of the intrinsic value of the spiritual and creative life of the individual, attention to the inner world of man; Ш freedom

Classicism Realism Strict adherence to the rule of “three unities”, reasonable rules, Simplicity, harmony, in dramaturgy: eternal laws, logic (1st house) place of composition created on the basis of the study of time (1 day) works of the best examples of action (1 conflict) of ancient literature Fidelity to reality , Psychologism; Depiction of life The principle of conveying the high nationality of historicism to its development the artistry of the essence of life, the significance of ideas Aesthetic ideal Sincerity, simplicity, Naturalness, devotion to “nature”, poetry, organic connection touching, tenderness and sadness with nature Sentimentalism Nature as an expression Freedom, power, Depiction of indomitability, spontaneous beginning of the desired - a stormy impulse of life, freedom of the world of dreams Romanticism

C L A S S I C I Z M S E N T I M E N T A L I Z M 1. A clear division of heroes into positive (makes a choice in favor of reason) and negative 2. The main heroes are kings, generals, statesmen figures Mitrofan 3. Identification of one and Prostakov’s leading features from the comedy in the character of the hero D. I. Fonvizin (miser, braggart, fool) “Undergrown” 1. Dividing the heroes into positive (a commoner endowed with a rich spiritual world) and negative (a hard-hearted representative of the authorities) 2. Main character works by O. A. Kiprensky. an ordinary person. Poor Liza 1827 REALIZM Typification of characters (the fusion of the typical and the individual). New types of heroes: type " little man"(Vyrin, Bashmachkin, Marmeladov, Devushkin); the type of “superfluous person” (Onegin, Kukryniksy. Oblomov); Pechorin, P. Sokolov. Illustration of the hero type Illustration for the novel “new” for the novel by A. S. Pushkin for the story “The Overcoat” and the Children” by I. S. Turgenev. Bazarov) (nihilist “The Fathers of N.V. Gogol “Eugene Onegin” Exclusivity R O romantic hero: M 1. Strong personality, a person A of high passion, living with a desire for freedom N 2. Internal duality T 3. Loneliness I 4. Tragic fate Z 5. The search for an ideal. Demon M. Vrubel. and dreams M 6. The embodiment of the romantic K. Bryullov. L. Pasternak. Confession of Mtsyri's rebellion against reality Fortuneteller Svetlana T I P G E R O YA

Classicism Scenes from ancient and Russian history. Heroic destinies. A duel of passion and duty. A. P. Losenko. Hector's farewell to Andromache, 1773 Sentimentalism Individual situations of everyday life. Days of work in the lap of nature. Image peasant life(often in pastoral colors). A. G. Venetsianov. On the arable land. Spring Realism STORIES Detailed and objectively recreated pictures of national life. Depicts the relationship between a person and environment. Human character is revealed in relation to social circumstances. I. E. Repin. Barge haulers on the Volga I. Shishkin. Sosnovy Bor Romanticism Conflict between the hero and society. A duel between personality and fate. The hero's actions in unusual, exceptional circumstances: exotic countries, uncivilized peoples, the other world of K. Bryullov. The last one is I. Aivazovsky. Rainbow day Pompeii

CLASSICISM REALISM High: ode, epic poem, tragedy Short story, essay, novella, novel Middle: scientific poetry, poem, drama, epic novel, elegy, sonnet, message epic poem, epic cycle (The goal is a comprehensive image of the world) Low : comedy, fable, epigram, satire GENRES Family novel, diary, confession, letters, travel notes, memoirs, elegy, message, sensitive story (written in the first person) SENTIMENTALISM Novel, story, novel in letters, elegy, idyll, romantic poem, thought, ballad (The goal is self-disclosure of the inner world of the individual, a story about individual fate) ROMANTICISM

Picturesque portrait of V. A. Zhukovsky romanticism D. Levitsky. Catherine II classicism V. Borovikovsky. Catherine II sentimentalism I. Repin. Portrait of A. Rubinstein realism

HISTORICAL ERA Classicism late XVII - early XIX centuries Establishment of the absolute monarchy B Russia XVIII century Peter I Elizabeth Catherine II Petrovna

Affirmed life values ​​Classicism Classicus (lat.) - exemplary Ш the primacy of state interests over personal ones; Ш cult of moral duty; Cult of reason, rationalism

Classicism Strict adherence to reasonable rules, eternal laws created on the basis of the study of the best examples of ancient literature Simplicity, harmony, consistency of the composition of the work Aesthetic ideal The rule of “three unities” in dramaturgy: place (1 house) time (1 day) action (1 conflict)

REPRESENTATIVES OF CLASSICISM IN LITERATURE N. Boileau D. I. Fonvizin Moliere M. V. Lomonosov G. R. Derzhavin

TYPE OF HERO D. Levitsky. Catherine II C L A S S I C I Z M 1. A clear division of heroes into positive (makes a choice in favor of reason) and negative 2. The main heroes are kings, generals, statesmen 3. Identification of one leading trait in the character of the hero (the miser , braggart, fool) Mitrofan and Prostakova from D. I. Fonvizin’s comedy “The Minor”

STORIES Classicism Stories from ancient and Russian history. Heroic destinies. A duel of passion and duty. A. P. Losenko. Hector's farewell to Andromache, 1773

GENRES CLASSICISM High: ode, epic poem, tragedy Middle: scientific poetry, elegy, sonnet, epistle Low: comedy, fable, epigram, satire

HISTORICAL ERA Sentimentalism second half of the 18th - beginning of the 19th century People's liberation wars in Europe and America. The bourgeoisie is a new social force in Russia 1773 - 1775 - Pugachev's rebellion and its suppression

Affirmed life values ​​Sentimentalism Sentimental (English) - sensitive Ш the primacy of feeling, not reason; The highest value is the person, not the state; Ш nature is the measure of all values; Ш idea of ​​moral equality of people V. Borovikovsky. Catherine II

Sentimentalism Naturalness, devotion to “nature”, organic connection with nature Aesthetic ideal Sincerity, simplicity, poetry, touching, tenderness and sadness

TYPE OF HERO S E N T M E N T A L I S M 1. The division of heroes into positive (a commoner endowed with a rich spiritual world) and negative (a hard-hearted representative of the authorities) 2. The main character of the work is an ordinary person O. A. Kiprensky. Poor Lisa 1827

STORIES Sentimentalism A. G. Venetsianov. On the arable land. Spring Individual situations of everyday life. Days of work in the lap of nature. Depiction of peasant life (often in pastoral colors).

GENRES Family novel, diary, confession, letters, travel notes, memoirs, elegy, message, sensitive story (written in 1st person) SENTIMENTALISM

HISTORICAL ERA Romanticism late XVIII - early XIX centuries In Russia Patriotic War of 1812 The people - the true heroes of the war - are enslaved and without rights. A feeling of disappointment and dissatisfaction in Russian society. The Great French Revolution and disappointment in its results December 14, 1825 - uprising on Senate Square

Affirmed life values ​​Byron V. A. Zhukovsky K. F. Ryleev Romanticism Romantique (French) – mysterious, unreal Sh rejection of the lack of spirituality of real life M. Yu. Lermontov; escape from existing reality and search for an ideal outside of it; Ш affirmation of the intrinsic value of the spiritual and creative life of the individual, attention to the inner world of man; Ш freedom

Romanticism Image of what is desired - the dream world Freedom, power, indomitability, stormy impulse Aesthetic ideal Nature as an expression of the spontaneous beginning of life, freedom

T I P M. Vrubel. Demon G E R O Y L. Pasternak. Confession of Mtsyri The exclusivity of K. Bryullov. Fortuneteller Svetlana Exclusiveness P About the romantic hero: M 1. Strong personality, a person A of high passion, living with the desire for freedom N 2. Internal duality T 3. Loneliness I 4. Tragic fate H 5. Search for an ideal and dream M 6. The embodiment of romantic rebellion against reality

STORIES Romanticism K. Bryullov. The last day of Pompeii I. Aivazovsky. Rainbow Conflict between the hero and society. A duel between personality and fate. The hero's actions in unusual, exceptional circumstances: exotic countries, uncivilized peoples, the other world

GENRES Novel, story, novel in letters, elegy, idyll, romantic poem, thought, ballad (The goal is self-disclosure of the inner world of the individual, a story about individual fate) ROMANTICISM

HISTORICAL ERA Realism since the 30s of the 19th century In Russia, the confrontation between the noble and mixed-democratic cultures Understanding the results of revolutions, searching for real ways to recreate reality

Affirmed life values ​​Realism Realis (lat.) - material, real A. S. Pushkin L. N. Tolstoy A. N. Ostrovsky F. M. Dostoevsky Ш the desire to understand man and the world; Ш discovery of the laws of existence of man and society I. S. Turgenev N. V. Gogol

Realism The principle of nationality Fidelity to reality, the transfer of the essence of life, the significance of ideas The principle of historicism The depiction of life in its development Psychologism; high artistry

REALIZM Typing of characters (combination of typical and individual). New types of heroes: the “little man” type (Vyrin, Bashmachkin, Marmeladov, Devushkin); the type of “superfluous person” (Onegin, Pechorin, Oblomov); type of “new” hero (nihilist Bazarov) Illustration for the novel by I. S. Turgenev “Fathers and Sons” TIP G E R O Y Kukryniksy. Illustration for the story “The Overcoat” by N.V. Gogol P. Sokolov. Illustration for the novel by A. S. Pushkin “Eugene Onegin”

Realism Detailed and objectively recreated pictures of national life. Depicts the relationship between man and the environment. Human character is revealed in relation to social circumstances. STORIES I. E. Repin. Barge haulers on the Volga I. Shishkin. Sosnovy Bor

GENRES REALISM Short story, essay, novella, novel, poem, drama, epic novel, epic poem, epic cycle (The goal is a comprehensive depiction of the world)

Bolshoi Theater in Warsaw.

Classicism(fr. classicisme, from lat. classicus- exemplary) - artistic style and aesthetic direction in European art XVII-XIX centuries

Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism, which were formed simultaneously with the same ideas in the philosophy of Descartes. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. Of interest to classicism is only the eternal, the unchangeable - in each phenomenon it strives to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual characteristics. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art (Aristotle, Horace).

Classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high (ode, tragedy, epic) and low (comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strictly defined characteristics, the mixing of which is not allowed.

How a certain direction was formed in France, in the 17th century. French classicism affirmed the personality of man as the highest value of existence, freeing him from religious and church influence. Russian classicism not only adopted Western European theory, but also enriched it with national characteristics.

Painting

Nicolas Poussin. "Dance to the Music of Time" (1636).

Interest in art ancient Greece and Rome appeared back in the Renaissance, which, after centuries of the Middle Ages, turned to the forms, motifs and subjects of antiquity. The greatest theorist of the Renaissance, Leon Batista Alberti, back in the 15th century. expressed ideas that foreshadowed certain principles of classicism and were fully manifested in Raphael’s fresco “The School of Athens” (1511).

The systematization and consolidation of the achievements of the great artists of the Renaissance, especially the Florentine ones led by Raphael and his student Giulio Romano, formed the program of the Bolognese school of the late 16th century, the most typical representatives of which were the Carracci brothers. In their influential Academy of Arts, the Bolognese preached that the path to the heights of art lay through a scrupulous study of the heritage of Raphael and Michelangelo, imitation of their mastery of line and composition.

At the beginning of the 17th century, young foreigners flocked to Rome to get acquainted with the heritage of antiquity and the Renaissance. The most prominent place among them was occupied by the Frenchman Nicolas Poussin, in his paintings, mainly on the themes of ancient antiquity and mythology, who provided unsurpassed examples of geometrically precise composition and thoughtful relationships between color groups. Another Frenchman, Claude Lorrain, in his antique landscapes of the environs of the “eternal city”, organized the pictures of nature by harmonizing them with the light of the setting sun and introducing peculiar architectural scenes.

Jacques-Louis David. "The Oath of the Horatii" (1784).

Poussin's coldly rational normativism won the approval of the Versailles court and was continued by court artists like Le Brun, who saw in classicist painting the ideal artistic language for praising the absolutist state of the “sun king.” Although private customers preferred various options Baroque and Rococo, the French monarchy kept classicism afloat by funding academic institutions such as the École des Beaux-Arts. The Rome Prize provided the most talented students with the opportunity to visit Rome for direct acquaintance with the great works of antiquity.

The discovery of “genuine” ancient painting during the excavations of Pompeii, the deification of antiquity by the German art critic Winckelmann and the cult of Raphael, preached by the artist Mengs, who was close to him in views, in the second half of the 18th century breathed new breath into classicism (in Western literature this stage is called neoclassicism). The largest representative of the “new classicism” was Jacques-Louis David; his extremely laconic and dramatic artistic language served with equal success to promote the ideals of the French Revolution (“The Death of Marat”) and the First Empire (“The Dedication of Emperor Napoleon I”).

In the 19th century, classicist painting entered a period of crisis and became a force holding back the development of art, not only in France, but also in other countries. David's artistic line was successfully continued by Ingres, who, while maintaining the language of classicism in his works, often turned to romantic subjects with oriental flavor(“Turkish Baths”); his portrait works are marked by a subtle idealization of the model. Artists in other countries (like, for example, Karl Bryullov) also filled works that were classic in form with the spirit of reckless romanticism; this combination was called academicism. Numerous art academies served as its breeding grounds. In the middle of the 19th century, the young generation, gravitating towards realism, represented in France by Courbet’s circle, and in Russia by the Wanderers, rebelled against the conservatism of the academic establishment.

Sculpture

Antonio Canova. Cupid and Psyche(1787-1793, Paris, Louvre)

The impetus for the development of classicist sculpture in the mid-18th century was the writings of Winckelmann and archaeological excavations of ancient cities, which expanded the knowledge of contemporaries about ancient sculpture. In France, such sculptors as Pigalle and Houdon vacillated on the verge of Baroque and Classicism. Classicism reached its highest embodiment in the field of plastic art in the heroic and idyllic works of Antonio Canova, who drew inspiration mainly from the statues of the Hellenistic era (Praxiteles). In Russia, Fedot Shubin, Mikhail Kozlovsky, Boris Orlovsky, and Ivan Martos gravitated towards the aesthetics of classicism.

Public monuments, which became widespread in the era of classicism, gave sculptors the opportunity to idealize military valor and the wisdom of statesmen. Fidelity to the ancient model required sculptors to depict models naked, which conflicted with accepted moral norms. To resolve this contradiction, modern figures were initially depicted by classicist sculptors in the form of naked ancient gods: Suvorov as Mars, and Polina Borghese as Venus. Under Napoleon, the issue was resolved by moving to the depiction of modern figures in ancient togas (these are the figures of Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly in front of the Kazan Cathedral).

Bertel Thorvaldsen. "Ganymede Feeding Zeus' Eagle" (1817).

Private customers of the classic era preferred to perpetuate their names in tombstones. The popularity of this sculptural form was facilitated by the arrangement of public cemeteries in the main cities of Europe. In accordance with the classicist ideal, figures on tombstones are usually in a state of deep repose. The sculpture of classicism is generally alien to sudden movements and external manifestations of emotions such as anger.

Late, Empire classicism, represented primarily by the prolific Danish sculptor Thorvaldsen, is imbued with a dryish pathos. Purity of lines, restraint of gestures, and dispassionate expressions are especially valued. In choosing role models, the emphasis shifts from Hellenism to the archaic period. Religious images are coming into fashion, which, in Thorvaldsen’s interpretation, produce a somewhat chilling impression on the viewer. Tombstone sculpture of late classicism often bears a slight touch of sentimentality.

Architecture

An example of British Palladianism is the London mansion Osterley Park (architect Robert Adam).

Charles Cameron. Project for finishing the green dining room of the Catherine Palace in the Adam style.

The main feature of the architecture of classicism was the appeal to the forms of ancient architecture as a standard of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by regularity of layout and clarity of volumetric form. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular city planning system.

The architectural language of classicism was formulated at the end of the Renaissance by the great Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi. The Venetians absolutized the principles of ancient temple architecture to such an extent that they even applied them in the construction of such private mansions as Villa Capra. Inigo Jones brought Palladianism north to England, where local Palladian architects followed Palladian principles with varying degrees of fidelity until the mid-18th century.

Andrea Palladio. Villa Rotonda near Vicenza

By that time, satiety with the “whipped cream” of the late Baroque and Rococo began to accumulate among the intellectuals of continental Europe. Born of the Roman architects Bernini and Borromini, Baroque thinned out into Rococo, a predominantly chamber style with an emphasis on interior decoration and decorative arts. This aesthetics was of little use for solving large urban planning problems. Already under Louis XV (1715-74), urban planning ensembles were built in Paris in the “ancient Roman” style, such as Place de la Concorde (architect Jacques-Ange Gabriel) and the Church of Saint-Sulpice, and under Louis XVI (1774-92) a similar “noble Laconism" is already becoming the main architectural direction.

The most significant interiors in the classicist style were designed by the Scot Robert Adam, who returned to his homeland from Rome in 1758. He was greatly impressed by both the archaeological research of Italian scientists and the architectural fantasies of Piranesi. In Adam’s interpretation, classicism was a style hardly inferior to rococo in the sophistication of its interiors, which gained it popularity not only among democratically minded circles of society, but also among the aristocracy. Like his French colleagues, Adam preached a complete rejection of details devoid of constructive function.

Fragment of the ideal city of Arc-et-Senan (architect Ledoux).

The Frenchman Jacques-Germain Soufflot, during the construction of the Church of Sainte-Geneviève in Paris, demonstrated the ability of classicism to organize vast urban spaces. The massive grandeur of his designs foreshadowed the megalomania of the Napoleonic Empire style and late classicism. In Russia, Bazhenov moved in the same direction as Soufflot. The French Claude-Nicolas Ledoux and Etienne-Louis Boullé went even further towards developing a radical visionary style with an emphasis on abstract geometrization of forms. In revolutionary France, the ascetic civic pathos of their projects was of little demand; Ledoux's innovation was fully appreciated only by the modernists of the 20th century.

The architects of Napoleonic France drew inspiration from the majestic images of military glory left behind by imperial Rome, such as the triumphal arch of Septimius Severus and Trajan's Column. By order of Napoleon, these images were transferred to Paris in the form of the triumphal arch of Carrousel and the Vendôme Column. In relation to monuments of military greatness from the era of the Napoleonic wars, the term “imperial style” is used - Empire style. In Russia, Carl Rossi, Andrei Voronikhin and Andreyan Zakharov proved themselves to be outstanding masters of the Empire style. In Britain, the empire style corresponds to the so-called. “Regency style” (the largest representative is John Nash).

Valhalla is a repetition of the Athens Parthenon by the Bavarian architect Leo von Klenze.

The aesthetics of classicism favored large-scale urban planning projects and led to the streamlining of urban development on the scale of entire cities. In Russia, almost all provincial and many county towns were redesigned in accordance with the principles of classic rationalism. To authentic museums of classicism under open air cities such as St. Petersburg, Helsinki, Warsaw, Dublin, Edinburgh and a number of others have become. A single architectural language, dating back to Palladio, dominated throughout the entire space from Minusinsk to Philadelphia. Ordinary development was carried out in accordance with albums of standard projects.

In the period following the Napoleonic Wars, classicism had to coexist with romantically colored eclecticism, in particular with the return of interest in the Middle Ages and the fashion for architectural neo-Gothic. In connection with Champollion's discoveries, Egyptian motifs are gaining popularity. Interest in ancient Roman architecture is replaced by reverence for everything ancient Greek (“neo-Greek”), which was especially pronounced in Germany and the USA. German architects Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel built up, respectively, Munich and Berlin with grandiose museum and other public buildings in the spirit of the Parthenon. In France, the purity of classicism is diluted with free borrowings from the architectural repertoire of the Renaissance and Baroque.

Artists:

Romanticism

Ideological and artistic direction in European and American spiritual culture. 18 - 1st floor. 19th centuries As a style of creativity and thinking, it remains one of the main aesthetic and ideological models of the 20th century.

Origin. Axiology

Romanticism emerged in the 1790s. first in Germany and then spread throughout the Western European cultural region. His ideological basis was the crisis of rationalism of the Enlightenment, the artistic search for pre-romantic movements (sentimentalism, “sturmerism”), the Great French Revolution, and German classical philosophy. Romanticism is an aesthetic revolution that, instead of science and reason (the highest cultural authority for the Enlightenment), puts the artistic creativity of the individual, which becomes a model, a “paradigm” for all types of cultural activities. The main feature of romanticism as a movement is the desire to contrast the burgher, “philistine” world of reason, law, individualism, utilitarianism, atomization of society, naive faith in linear progress with a new system of values: the cult of creativity, the primacy of imagination over reason, criticism of logical, aesthetic and moral abstractions , a call for the emancipation of a person’s personal powers, following nature, myth, symbol, the desire for synthesis and discovery of the relationship of everything with everything. Moreover, quite quickly the axiology of romanticism goes beyond the scope of art and begins to determine the style of philosophy, behavior, clothing, as well as other aspects of life.

Paradoxes of Romanticism

Paradoxically, romanticism combined the cult of the personal uniqueness of the individual with a gravitation towards the impersonal, elemental, and collective; increased reflectivity of creativity - with the discovery of the world of the unconscious; play, understood as the highest meaning of creativity, with calls for the introduction of the aesthetic into “serious” life; individual rebellion - with dissolution in the folk, tribal, national. This initial duality of romanticism is reflected by its theory of irony, which elevates into a principle the discrepancy between conditional aspirations and values ​​with the unconditional absolute as a goal. The main features of the romantic style include the element of play, which dissolved the aesthetic framework of classicism; heightened attention to everything original and non-standard (and the special was not simply given a place in the universal, as the baroque style or pre-romanticism did, but the very hierarchy of the general and the individual was inverted); interest in myth and even understanding of myth as the ideal of romantic creativity; symbolic interpretation of the world; the desire for the utmost expansion of the arsenal of genres; reliance on folklore, preference for image over concept, aspiration over possession, dynamics over statics; experiments in the synthetic unification of the arts; aesthetic interpretation of religion, idealization of the past and archaic cultures, often resulting in social protest; aestheticization of life, morality, politics.

Poetry as the Philosopher's Stone

In polemics with the Enlightenment, romanticism formulates a program for the rethinking and reform of philosophy in favor of artistic intuition, in which at first it is very close to the early stage of German classical philosophy (cf. the theses of the “First Program of the System of German Idealism” - a sketch belonging to Schelling or Hegel: “The Highest Act of Reason is an aesthetic act. Poetry becomes the teacher of humanity; there will be no more philosophy. We must create a new mythology, this mythology must be the mythology of reason." Philosophy for Novalis and F. Schlegel, the main theoreticians of German romanticism, is a type of intellectual magic with the help of which genius, mediating nature and spirit, creates an organic whole from disparate phenomena. However, the absolute of romance thus restored is interpreted not as an unambiguous unitary system, but as a constantly self-reproducing process of creativity, in which the unity of chaos and space is each time achieved by an unpredictably new formula. The emphasis on the playful unity of opposites in the absolute and the inalienability of the subject from the picture of the universe constructed by him makes the romantics co-authors of the dialectical method created by German transcendentalism. Romantic “irony” with its method of “turning inside out” any positivity and the principle of denying the claims of any finite phenomenon to universal significance can also be considered a type of dialectic. From the same attitude follows the preference of romanticism for fragmentation and “Socraticism” as methods of philosophizing, which ultimately (along with criticism of the autonomy of reason) led to the demarcation of romanticism from German classical philosophy and allowed Hegel to define romanticism as the self-affirmation of subjectivity: “the true content of the romantic is the absolute inner life, and the corresponding form is spiritual subjectivity, comprehending its independence and freedom.”

A new look at the inner world

The rejection of the Enlightenment axiom of rationality as the essence of human nature led romanticism to a new understanding of man: the atomic integrity of the “I”, obvious to past eras, was called into question, the world of the individual and collective unconscious was discovered, the conflict of the inner world with man’s own “nature” was felt. The disharmony of personality and its alienated objectifications was especially richly thematized by symbols romantic literature(double, shadow, machine gun, doll, and finally - the famous Frankenstein, created by the imagination of M. Shelley).

Understanding past eras

In search of cultural allies, romantic thought turns to antiquity and gives its anti-classicist interpretation as an era of tragic beauty, sacrificial heroism and magical comprehension of nature, the era of Orpheus and Dionysus. In this respect, romanticism immediately preceded the revolution in the understanding of the Hellenic spirit carried out by Nietzsche. The Middle Ages could also be seen as a congenial, “romantic” culture par excellence (Novalis), but in general the Christian era (including modernity) was understood as a tragic split between ideal and reality , the inability to harmoniously reconcile with the finite world of this world. Closely connected with this intuition is the romantic experience of evil as an inescapable universal force: on the one hand, romanticism saw here the depth of the problem, from which the Enlightenment, as a rule, simply turned away, on the other, romanticism, with its poeticization of all things, partially loses the ethical immunity of the Enlightenment against evil. The latter explains the ambiguous role of romanticism in the emergence of totalitarian mythology of the 20th century.

Impact on science

Romantic natural philosophy, having updated the Renaissance idea of ​​man as a microcosm and introducing into it the idea of ​​similarity between the unconscious creativity of nature and the conscious creativity of the artist, played a certain role in the formation of natural science in the 19th century. (both directly and through scientists - adherents of early Schelling - such as Carus, Oken, Steffens). The humanities also receive from romanticism (from the hermeneutics of Schleiermacher, the philosophy of language of Novalis and F. Schlegel) an impulse that is significant for history, cultural studies, and linguistics.

Romanticism and religion

In religious thought, romanticism can be divided into two directions. One was initiated by Schleiermacher (Speeches on Religion, 1799) with his understanding of religion as an internal, pantheistically colored experience of “dependence on the infinite.” It significantly influenced the formation of Protestant liberal theology. The other is represented by the general tendency of late romanticism towards orthodox Catholicism and the restoration of medieval cultural foundations and values. (See the work of Novalis, programmatic for this trend, “Christianity, or Europe,” 1799.).

Stages

The historical stages in the development of romanticism were the birth in 1798-1801. the Jena circle (A. Schlegel, F. Schlegel, Novalis, Tieck, later Schleiermacher and Schelling), in whose bosom the basic philosophical and aesthetic principles of romanticism were formulated; emergence after 1805 of the Heidelberg and Swabian schools literary romanticism; publication of J. de Stael's book “On Germany” (1810), with which the European glory of romanticism began; the widespread spread of romanticism within Western culture in 1820-30; crisis stratification of the romantic movement in the 1840s, 50s. into factions and their fusion with both conservative and radical currents of “anti-burgher” European thought.

Romantic philosophers

The philosophical influence of romanticism is noticeable primarily in such a mental movement as the “philosophy of life.” The work of Schopenhauer, Hölderlin, Kierkegaard, Carlyle, Wagner theorist, and Nietzsche can be considered a unique branch of romanticism. The historiosophy of Baader, the constructions of the “lyubomudrov” and Slavophiles in Russia, the philosophical and political conservatism of J. de Maistre and Bonald in France were also nourished by the sentiments and intuitions of romanticism. The philosophizing of the late Symbolists was neo-romantic in nature. 19-beg. 20th centuries The interpretation of freedom and creativity in existentialism is also close to romanticism. The most important representatives of romanticism in art fine arts Romanticism manifested itself most clearly in painting and graphics, less clearly in sculpture and architecture (for example, false Gothic). Most of the national schools of romanticism in the fine arts emerged in the struggle against official academic classicism. Romanticism in music developed in the 20s. 19th century under the influence of the literature of romanticism and developed in close connection with it, with literature in general (appeal to synthetic genres, primarily opera and song, instrumental miniatures and musical programming). The main representatives of romanticism in literature are Novalis, Jean Paul, E. T. A. Hoffman, W. Wordsworth, W. Scott, J. Byron, P. B. Shelley, V. Hugo, A. Lamartine, A. Mickiewicz, E. Poe, G. Melville, M. Yu. Lermontov, V. F. Odoevsky; in music - F. Schubert, K. M. Weber, R. Wagner, G. Berlioz, N. Paganini, F. Liszt, F. Chopin; in the fine arts - painters E. Delacroix, T. Gericault, F. O. Runge, K. D. Friedrich, J. Constable, W. Turner, in Russia - O. A. Kiprensky, A. O. Orlovsky. I. E. Repin, V. I. Surikov, M. P. Mussorgsky, M. S. Shchepkin, K. S. Stanislavsky.

Literary direction is an ideological and aesthetic community of a group of writers of a certain country and era, which has received a programmatic justification. The belonging of writers to one direction is determined by the unity of cultural tradition, the relative similarity of worldview and methods of reproducing reality. In the history of Russian literature, the most significant trends were classicism, romanticism and realism.

A literary movement is different from a current. Writers may belong to one direction,

Different in ideological views and aesthetic features creativity, i.e. in one literary direction there can be different movements. The trend presupposes a common ethical and social ideal, artistic principles and techniques.

Thus, in Russian classicism the “Sumarokov” and “Lomonosov” movements stand out.

Classicism- a literary movement that originated in the 17th century. but France in the conditions of the formation of an absolutist state. Classical writers chose ancient art as a role model, but interpreted it in their own way. Classicism is based on

The principle of rationalism (racio). Everything must be subject to reason, both in the state and in personal life, and selfish feelings and passions must be brought within the framework of civil and moral duty by reason.

The theorist of classicism was the French poet Nicolas Boileau, who outlined the program of the movement in the book “Poetic Art”. In classicism, certain creative rules (norms) were established:

– The main conflict of the works is the struggle between egoistic feeling and civic duty or between passion and reason. In this case, duty and reason always win.

– In accordance with your attitude towards public duty characters were divided into positive and negative. The characters had only one quality, one dominant trait (cowardice or courage, deceit or nobility, etc.), i.e. the characters were one-line.

– A strict hierarchy of genres was established in literature. All of them were divided into high (ode, heroic poem, tragedy) and low (fable, satire, comedy). Outstanding events were depicted in high genres; the heroes were monarchs, statesmen, and generals.

They glorified deeds for the benefit of the state and the monarchy. The language in works of high genres was supposed to be solemn and majestic.

In low genres, the life of people of the middle classes was depicted, everyday phenomena and individual character traits of a person were ridiculed. The language of fables and comedies was close to colloquial.

Dramatic works in the aesthetics of classicism were subject to the requirement of three unities: time, place and action. The unity of time and place meant that the action in the play should take no more than a day and take place in one place. The unity of action dictated a plot line that was not complicated by side episodes.

In France, the leading writers of classicism were playwrights P. Corneille and J. Racine (in the genre of tragedy), Moliere (comedy), J. Lafontaine (fable).

In Russia, classicism developed from the 18th century. Although Russian classicism had much in common with Western European, in particular with French, national specificity was clearly manifested in literature. If Western European classicism turned to ancient subjects, then Russian writers took material from national history. In Russian classicism, a critical note sounded clearly, the denunciation of vices was sharper, and the interest in the folk language and in folk art in general was more pronounced.

Representatives of classicism in Russian literature are A. D. Kantemir, M. V. Lomonosov, A. P. Sumarokov, D. I. Fonvizin.

Romanticism- an ambiguous phenomenon. Develops in the literature of Europe and Russia from the end of the 18th - in the first third of the 19th century. In each country, romanticism had its own characteristics. The high landmarks of romanticism were in England - J.

G. Byron, in France - V. Hugo, in Germany - E. T. A. Hoffmann and G. Heine, in Poland and Belarus - A. Mickiewicz.

In romanticism, the dominant significance is the writer’s subjective position in relation to reality, which is expressed not so much in its reconstruction as in its re-creation. Romantic writers had some common features:

– Dissatisfaction with reality, discord with it, disappointment led to the creation of a picture of the world that corresponded to the writer’s ideals. All romantic writers depart from reality. Some - into the world of foggy dreams, a mystical past, the other world (the so-called passive romanticism, or, more precisely, religious-mystical).

Others dreamed of the future, called for a struggle for the reconstruction of society, for personal freedom (active or civic romanticism).

– The heroes of romantic poetry are unusual, exceptional personalities. These are either lonely rebels disappointed in life, leaving society, or strong and courageous individuals who perform heroic deeds, ready to sacrifice themselves for the sake of the happiness of others.

– Exceptional characters act in exceptional circumstances, in which they demonstrate all their extraordinary qualities, and the heroes act outside of social and everyday conditions. The action can take place in exotic countries, in the other world.

– In romantic works, the lyrical principle predominates. Their tone is emotional, upbeat, pathetic.

In Russia, religious and moralistic romanticism is represented by the work of V. A. Zhukovsky, civil romanticism by K. F. Ryleev, V. K. Kuchelbecker. A. S. Pushkin, M. Yu. Lermontov, and the early M. Gorky paid tribute to romanticism.

Realism- a literary direction in which the surrounding reality is depicted specifically historically, in the variety of its contradictions, and “typical characters act in typical circumstances.”

Literature is understood by realist writers as a textbook of life. Therefore, they strive to comprehend life in all its contradictions, and a person - in psychological, social and other aspects of his personality.

Common features of realism:

– Historicism of thinking.

– The focus is on the patterns operating in life, determined by cause-and-effect relationships.

– Fidelity to reality becomes the leading criterion of artistry in realism.

– A person is depicted in interaction with the environment in authentic life circumstances. Realism shows the influence of the social environment on a person’s spiritual world and the formation of his character.

– Characters and circumstances interact with each other: character is not only conditioned (determined) by circumstances, but also itself influences them (changes, opposes).

– Works of realism present deep conflicts, life is given in dramatic clashes. Reality is given in development. Realism depicts not only already established forms of social relations and types of characters, but also reveals emerging ones that form a trend.

– The nature and type of realism depends on the socio-historical situation - it manifests itself differently in different eras.

In the second third of the 19th century. The critical attitude of writers to the surrounding reality has intensified - both to the environment, society, and to man. Critical understanding of life, aimed at denying its individual aspects, gave rise to the name realism XIX V. critical.

The largest Russian realists were L. N. Tolstoy, F. M. Dostoevsky, I. S. Turgenev, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, A. P. Chekhov.

Image of the surrounding reality, human characters from the point of view of the progressiveness of the socialist ideal created the basis socialist realism. The first work of socialist realism in Russian literature is considered to be M. Gorky’s novel “Mother”. A. Fadeev, D. Furmanov, M. Sholokhov, A. Tvardovsky worked in the spirit of socialist realism.

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Main literary movements Classicism Sentimentalism Romanticism Realism Signs of a literary movement Unite writers of a certain historical era Represent a special type of hero Express a certain worldview Choose characteristic themes and plots Work in certain genres Stand out due to the style of artistic speech Put forward certain life and aesthetic ideals

Classicism 17th – early 19th centuries. Russian classicism is a national-patriotic theme associated with the transformations of Peter 1 Distinctive Features- Violation of the truth of life: utopianism, idealization, abstraction in the image - far-fetched images, schematic characters - Edifying nature of the work, strict division of heroes into positive and negative - the use of a language that is little understood by the common people - national, civil orientation - Establishment of a hierarchy of genres: “high” (odes, tragedies), “medium” (elegies, historical works, friendly letters), “low” (comedies, satires, fables, epigrams) - The rule of “three unities”: time, place and action (all events occur in 24 hours , in one place and around one storyline)

Representatives of classicism Russian literature: M. Lomonosov (“Ode on the day of the accession to the throne of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, 1747”) G. Derzhavin (ode “Felitsa”) A. Sumarokov (tragedies) D. Fonvizin (comedies “The Brigadier”, “The Minor” ") Western European literature: P. Corneille, Voltaire, Moliere, J. Lefontaine

Sentimentalism 2nd half of the 18th – early 19th centuries. Distinctive features - Disclosure of human psychology - Feeling is proclaimed to be the highest value - Interest in the common man, in the world of his feelings, in nature, in everyday life - Idealization of reality, subjective image of the world - Ideas of moral equality of people, organic connection with nature - The work is often written from 1 -th face, which gives it lyricism and poetry

Romanticism A direction reflecting the artist’s desire to contrast reality and dreams. Distinctive features - unusualness, exoticism in the depiction of events, landscapes, people - daydreaming, idealization of reality, cult of freedom - striving for ideal, perfection - strong, bright, sublime image of a romantic hero - image of a hero in exceptional circumstances (in a tragic duel with fate) - Contrast in a mixture of high and low, tragic and comic, ordinary and unusual

Representatives of romanticism Russian literature - V. Zhukovsky (ballads Lyudmila, Svetlana, "Forest Tsar" - K. Ryleev (poems) - A. Pushkin (Poems "Prisoner of the Caucasus", "Gypsies", "Bakhchisarai Fountain") - M . Lermontov (poem “Mtsyri”) - N. Gogol (story “Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka”) - - M. Gorky (story “Old Woman Izergil”, “Song of the Falcon”, “Song of the Petrel” - Western European Literature - D Byron, I.W. Goethe, Schiller, Hoffmann, P. Merimee, V. Hugo, W. Scott

Realism A movement in art and literature of the 19th and 20th centuries, which is based on a complete, truthful and reliable depiction of life. Distinctive features - The basis is a conflict: hero - society - typical literary characters- Typical techniques in depicting reality (portrait, landscape, interior) - Depiction of a certain historical era, real events - Depiction of events and characters in development - All characters are depicted not in the abstract, but in interaction with the outside world

Representatives of realism - A. Griboedov (comedy “Woe from Wit”) - A. Pushkin (“Little Tragedies”, “Eugene Onegin”) - M. Lermontov (novel “A Hero of Our Time”) - N. Gogol (poem “Dead Souls”) - I. Turgenev (novels “Fathers and Sons”, “On the Eve”, “Rudin”, etc.) - L. Tolstoy (“After the Ball”, “Resurrection”, “War and Peace”, “ Sevastopol stories", etc.) - F. Dostoevsky ("Crime and Punishment", "Idiot", "The Brothers Karamazov", etc.)