The phenomenon of “stereotype” itself is considered not only in the works of linguists, but also sociologists, ethnographers, cognitive scientists, psychologists, ethnopsycholinguists (U. Lippman, I. S. Kon, J. Collin, Yu. D. Apresyan, Yu. A. Sorokin, V.A. Ryzhkov, Yu.E. Prokhorov, V.V. Krasnykh, P.N. Shikhirev, A.V. Mikheev, S.M. Tolstaya, E. Bart-minsky, A.K. Bayburin, G. S. Batygin, S. V. Silinsky, etc.).
Representatives of each of these sciences highlight in a stereotype those properties that they notice from the standpoint of their field of study, and therefore social stereotypes, communication stereotypes, mental stereotypes, cultural stereotypes, ethnocultural stereotypes, etc. are highlighted. For example, social stereotypes manifest themselves as stereotypes of thinking and behavior of an individual. Ethnocultural stereotypes are a generalized idea of typical features characterizing any people. German neatness, Russian “maybe”, Chinese ceremonies, African temperament, hot temper of Italians, stubbornness of Finns, slowness of Estonians, Polish gallantry - stereotypical ideas about the whole people that apply to each of its representatives. Most jokes about national character are based on stereotypical ideas. Let's give an example: “We sent representatives of different nationalities a film with the following content: a hot desert and a scorching sun. A man and a woman are walking with difficulty. And suddenly the man takes out a juicy orange and gives it to the woman. Viewers are asked the question: what nationality is he?”
The French spectator replies: “Only a Frenchman could treat a lady so gallantly!” Russian: “No. This is Russian: you have to be such a fool! I would eat it myself." Jew: “No, it’s a Jew: who else could get an orange in the desert?” Here the stereotypes are the gallantry of the French, the recklessness of the Russians, the resourcefulness of the Jews.
There are autostereotypes that reflect what people think about themselves, and heterostereotypes that relate to other people, and they are more critical. For example, what is considered a manifestation of prudence among one’s own people, is considered a manifestation of greed among another people. People perceive ethnocultural stereotypes as models that must be conformed to so that “people don’t laugh.” Therefore, stereotypes have a fairly strong influence on people, stimulating in them the formation of character traits that are reflected in the stereotype.
Experts in ethnic psychology who study ethnocultural stereotypes note that nations that are at a high level economic development, emphasize such qualities as intelligence, efficiency, enterprise, and nations with more backward economies - kindness, cordiality, hospitality. This can be confirmed by the research of S.G. Ter-Minasova, according to her results, in English society professionalism, hard work, responsibility, etc. are more valued, and in Russian - hospitality, sociability, fairness (Ter-Minasova, 2000, p. 255).
N.V. Ufimtseva differentiates ethnic stereotypes and cultural stereotypes: ethnic stereotypes are inaccessible to the self-reflection of a “naive” member of an ethnic group and are facts of behavior and the collective unconscious, they cannot be specially taught, and cultural stereotypes are accessible to self-reflection and are facts of behavior, the individual unconscious and consciousness, they can already be taught.
The concept of a stereotype was first used by W. Lippmann back in 1922, who believed that these are ordered, schematic “pictures of the world” determined by culture in a person’s head, which save his efforts when perceiving complex objects of the world. With this understanding of the stereotype, two of its important features stand out - being determined by culture and being a means of saving labor effort, and, accordingly, linguistic means. If algorithms for solving mathematical problems save a person’s thinking, then stereotypes “save” the personality itself.
In cognitive linguistics and ethnolinguistics, the term stereotype refers to the content side of language and culture, i.e. is understood as a mental (thinking) stereotype that correlates with “ a naive picture peace." We find such an understanding of the stereotype in the works of E. Bartminsky and his school; the linguistic picture of the world and the linguistic stereotype are correlated as a part and a whole, while a linguistic stereotype is understood as a judgment or several judgments relating to a specific object of the extralinguistic world, a subjectively determined representation of an object in which descriptive and evaluative features coexist and which is the result of interpretation reality within the framework of socially developed cognitive models. We consider a linguistic stereotype not only a judgment or several judgments, but also any stable expression consisting of several words, for example, a stable comparison, cliche, etc.: a person of Caucasian nationality, gray-haired as a harrier, a new Russian. The use of such stereotypes facilitates and simplifies communication, saving the energy of communicants.
Yu. A. Sorokin defines a stereotype as a certain process and result of communication (behavior) according to certain semiotic models, the list of which is closed due to certain semiotic-technological principles accepted in a certain society. In this case, the semiotic model is implemented at the social, socio-psychological levels (standard) or at the linguistic, psychological levels (norm). The standard and norm exist in two forms: as a stamp (an overly explicit complex sign) or as a cliche (an insufficiently explicit complex sign).
V. V. Krasnykh divides stereotypes into two types - stereotypes-images and stereotypes-situations. Examples of image stereotypes: a bee is a hard worker, a ram is stubborn, and situation stereotypes: a ticket is a composter, a stork is a cabbage.
Stereotypes are always national, and if there are analogues in other cultures, then these are quasi-stereotypes, because, while coinciding in general, they differ in nuances and details that are of fundamental importance. For example, the phenomena and situation of queuing are different in different cultures, and therefore, stereotypical behavior will also be different: in Russia they ask “Who is last?” or simply stand in line; in a number of European countries, they tear off a receipt in a special machine and then follow the numbers that light up above the window, for example, at the post office.
So, a stereotype is a certain fragment of the conceptual picture of the world, a mental “picture”, a stable cultural and national idea (according to Yu. E. Prokhorov, “super stable” and “super fixed”) about an object or situation. It represents some culturally determined idea of an object, phenomenon, situation. But this is not only a mental image, but also its verbal shell. Belonging to a particular culture is determined precisely by the presence of a basic stereotypical core of knowledge, which is repeated in the process of socialization of an individual in a given society, therefore stereotypes are considered pre-precious (important, representative) names in a culture. A stereotype is a phenomenon of language and speech, a stabilizing factor that allows, on the one hand, to store and transform some of the dominant components of a given culture, and, on the other hand, to express oneself among “one’s own” and at the same time identify “one’s own.”
The formation of ethnic consciousness and culture as regulators of human behavior are based on both innate and acquired in the process of socialization factors - cultural stereotypes, which are acquired from the moment a person begins to identify himself with a certain ethnic group, a certain culture and become aware of them. element.
The mechanism for the formation of stereotypes are many cognitive processes, because stereotypes perform a number of cognitive functions - the function of schematization and simplification, the function of forming and storing group ideology, etc.
We live in a world of stereotypes imposed on us by culture. The set of mental stereotypes of an ethnos is known to each of its representatives. Stereotypes are, for example, expressions in which a representative of a rural, peasant culture will talk about light moonlit night: it’s so light that you can sew, while a city dweller in this typical situation will say: it’s so light that you can read. Similar stereotypes are used by native speakers in standard communication situations. Moreover, almost any feature, not just the logically main one, can become dominant in a stereotype.
The culturosphere of a certain ethnic group contains a number of elements of a stereotypical nature, which, as a rule, are not perceived by bearers of another culture; These elements are called lacunae by Yu. A. Sorokin and I. Yu. Markovina: everything that the recipient noticed in a foreign cultural text, but does not understand, that seems strange to him and requires interpretation, serves as a signal of the presence in the text of national-specific elements of the culture in which a text has been created, namely gaps.
The stability of a culture and its viability are determined by the extent to which the structures that determine its unity and integrity are developed. The integrity of culture presupposes the development of cultural stereotypes - stereotypes of goal setting, behavior, perception, understanding, communication, etc., i.e. stereotypes big picture peace. An important role in the formation of stereotypes is played by the frequency of occurrence of certain objects and phenomena in people’s lives, often expressed in longer human contacts with these objects compared to others, which leads to stereotyping of such objects.
A behavior stereotype is the most important among stereotypes; it can turn into a ritual. And in general, stereotypes have much in common with traditions, customs, myths, rituals, but they differ from the latter in that traditions and customs are characterized by their objectified significance, openness to others, while stereotypes remain at the level of hidden mentalities that exist among “their own.”
So, a stereotype is characteristic of the consciousness and language of a representative of a culture, it is a kind of core of culture, its bright representative, and therefore the support of the individual in the dialogue of cultures.
To describe the language of a particular region in the light of linguoculturology, we use the scheme proposed by N. I. Tolstoy in ethnolinguistics: the literary language corresponds to the elite culture, dialects and dialects correspond to folk culture, etc.
This scheme can be used in the linguocultural description of any other region.
The most striking linguistic feature, which reflects the culture of the people, are phraseological units and proverbs, metaphors and symbols. For example, mythologems, archetypes, standards, stereotypes, customs, rituals, and beliefs are fixed in language.
The national and cultural identity of phraseological units, metaphors, and symbols is formed through cultural connotation. And yet we maintain that language is not the repository of culture.
The unit of language - the word - is only a signal, the function of which is to awaken human consciousness, to touch upon certain concepts in it that are ready to respond to this signal.
Language is only a mechanism that facilitates the encoding and transmission of culture. Texts are the true guardian of culture. It is not language, but text that reflects the spiritual world of man. It is the text that is directly related to culture, because it is permeated with many cultural codes; it is the text that stores information about history, ethnography, national psychology, national behavior, i.e. about everything that makes up the content of culture. In turn, the rules for constructing a text depend on the cultural context in which it appears.
The text is created from linguistic units of lower levels, which, with appropriate selection, can strengthen the cultural signal. Phraseologisms are primarily such units.
Stereotypes are forms that determine behavior not only individuals, but also groups, cultures, ethnic groups, societies. It is clear that they must be taken with some limitations. Experts in ethnic psychology who study ethnocultural stereotypes note that nations at a high level of economic development emphasize such qualities as intelligence, efficiency, and enterprise, while nations with more backward economies emphasize kindness, cordiality, and hospitality. This can be confirmed by the research of S.G. Ter-Minasova, according to the results of which, in American society, professionalism, hard work, responsibility, etc. are more valued, while in Russian - hospitality, sociability, and fairness.
According to research in the field of ethnocentrism, it can be concluded that most individuals consider what is happening in their culture to be natural and correct, and what is happening in other cultures to be unnatural and incorrect. This concerns behavior, customs, norms and values.
As a rule, on the one hand, ethnic stereotypes represent a serious barrier in intercultural communication. On the other hand, for all their schematism and generality, stereotypical ideas about other peoples and cultures prepare for a collision with a foreign culture, weaken the blow, and reduce cultural shock.
Stereotypes allow a person to form an idea of the world as a whole, to go beyond the boundaries of his narrow social, geographical and political world. The reason for the formation of stereotypes, as a rule, is ignorance of the national and cultural specifics that determine the behavior of representatives of a particular community, limited horizons, etc. Stereotypes entail certain expectations regarding the behavior patterns of representatives of other cultures. However, it should be noted that the formation of stereotypes is partly reinforced real facts. Nevertheless, stereotypes, as a rule, are not identical to either the national character or the people’s self-image.
It is clear that stereotypes are reflected in language. Constantly repeated phrases over time acquire a certain linguistic stability and move to the level of clichés.
The functions of stereotypes can be of the following nature (E. N. Belaya):
- 1) the function of transmitting relatively reliable information. When entering an alien culture, people tend to organize and generalize what they see, creating a primary cultural model;
- 2) the orienting function of stereotypes directly follows from the previous function. Its role is to create a simplified matrix of the surrounding world, a kind of “guide”;
- 3) the function of influencing the creation of reality - with the help of stereotypes there is a clear differentiation into one’s own and someone else’s cultural models. A stereotype helps preserve primary cultural identity.
By type, stereotypes can be differentiated into autostereotypes(strong opinions that have formed about themselves, their own culture under the influence of various sources of information) and heterostereotypes - external stereotypes that representatives of one culture develop about another.
As an example, here are several common sociocultural stereotypes.
Stereotype of Germans: bureaucratic, overzealous at work, overly punctual. Rationalism is put at the forefront.
Stereotype of the French: arrogant, hot-tempered, emotional. As a rule, they are very careful in both formal and informal relationships. They are sensitive to politeness. Economical and thrifty.
Stereotype of the British: very conservative, quite reserved and arrogant towards representatives of other cultures.
Stereotype about Norwegians: silent, distrustful, completely unromantic, reserved.
Stereotype about Finns: they talk little, eat little, don’t like feasts. Expensive gifts are not accepted in gifting etiquette.
Stereotypes like cultural phenomenon
Human consciousness is endowed with the property of reflecting the objective reality surrounding a person, and this reflection is a subjective image of the objective world, i.e. a certain model, a picture of the world. When reality is objectified by consciousness, the mechanisms of stereotyping are activated. The result of the reflection of a fragment of the world picture in the individual’s consciousness is a stereotype, a fixed mental “picture” [Krasnykh 2002:177-178]. Thus, from a content point of view, a stereotype is a certain stable fragment of the picture of the world stored in the mind.
The phenomenon of “stereotype” itself is considered not only in the works of linguists, but also sociologists, ethnographers, cognitive scientists, psychologists, ethnopsycholinguists (U. Lippman, I. S. Kon, Yu. D. Apresyan, V. A. Ryzhkov, Yu. E. Prokhorov, V.V. Krasnykh, V.A. Maslova).
Social stereotypes manifest themselves as stereotypes of thinking and behavior of an individual. Ethnocultural stereotypes are a generalized idea of the typical features that characterize a nation. German neatness, Russian “maybe”, Chinese ceremonies, African temperament, hot temper of Italians, stubbornness of Finns, slowness of Estonians, Polish gallantry - stereotypical ideas about the whole people that apply to each of its representatives.
In cognitive linguistics and ethnolinguistics, the term stereotype refers to the content side of language and culture, i.e. is understood as a mental (thinking) stereotype that correlates with a “naive picture of the world.” We find such an understanding of the stereotype in the works of E. Bartminsky and his school; the linguistic picture of the world and the linguistic stereotype are correlated as part and whole, while the linguistic stereotype is understood as a judgment or several judgments relating to a specific object of the extra-linguistic world, a subjectively determined representation of an object in which descriptive and evaluative features coexist and which is the result of the interpretation of reality within the framework of socially developed cognitive models. We consider a linguistic stereotype not only a judgment or several judgments, but also any stable expression consisting of several words, for example, a stable comparison, cliche, etc.: a person of Caucasian nationality, gray-haired as a harrier, a new Russian. The use of such stereotypes facilitates and simplifies communication, saving the energy of communicants.
The stereotype is interpreted in modern social sciences as “a set of stable, simplified generalizations about a group of individuals that allows group members to be categorized and perceived in a stereotyped way, according to these expectations.” However, the stereotype does not only apply to groups of subjects. It also expresses a person’s habitual attitude towards any phenomenon or event. Stereotypes are formed in the process of socialization of the individual [Ryzhkov 1988:11] and are influenced by social conditions and previous experience.
In linguoculturology, the following types of stereotypes are distinguished: simple and figurative. Both have autostereotypes and heterostereotypes. (think about examples).
Stereotypes are always national, and if there are analogues in other cultures, then these are quasi-stereotypes, because, while coinciding in general, they differ in nuances and details that are of fundamental importance. For example, the phenomena and situation of queuing are different in different cultures, and therefore, stereotypical behavior will also be different: in Russia they ask “Who is last?” or just stand in line, in a row European countries They tear off the receipt in a special machine and then follow the numbers that light up above the window, for example, at the post office.
According to Harutyunyan, “a peculiar national color feelings and emotions, way of thinking and actions, stable and national features of habits and traditions, formed under the influence of the conditions of material life, characteristics historical development of a given nation and manifested in the specifics of its national culture.” In other words, a set of character traits inherent in a particular nation.
Ethnic cultural stereotypes cannot be considered separately from the culture of communication, since interethnic communication is not an isolated area social life, but a mechanism that ensures the coordination and functioning of all elements of human culture.
The culture of interethnic communication is a system of stereotypical forms, principles, and methods of communicative activity specific to a given ethnic group. The system of ethnocultural stereotypes is specially adapted to perform socially significant functions in the life of an ethnic group.
Ethnic stereotypes in situations of intercultural communication act as “guides” of behavior. Based on the formed ideas, we predict in advance the behavior of representatives of another ethnic group, and without meaning to, we establish a distance in the process of intercultural communication.
The perception of another ethnic group is a direct reaction to contact with a foreign ethnic environment. Typically, perception comes through the prism of one’s ethnic “I,” that is, a certain traditional stereotype of thinking and behavior determined by ethnicity. Now, when ethnic differences dominate people’s behavior more and more, determining the nature of perception of other ethnic groups, intercultural communication gives rise to many problems.
The basis for the formation of ethnic stereotypes are cultural differences, which are easily perceived in intercultural interaction. Formed in the zone of ethnocultural contacts on the basis of systems of ethnic ideas about the imaginary and actual traits of one’s own and other ethnic groups, stereotypes are consolidated on a subconscious level as an unquestionable imperative in relation to representatives of other ethnic cultures.
“Only the affairs pursued by enterprises are important, but on the mutual dependence of business and society.”
Until now, a deep understanding of this relationship is often lacking both for Russian entrepreneurs and society as a whole, as a result of which all parties suffer.
Thus, the German model and the experience gained through its study in the field of business communications can help fulfill a vital role in Russia - to spread and strengthen in society the correct ideas about business, i.e., first of all, about the possibility of realizing one’s own potential through labor -
wear, and not a means of easy money. In addition, society needs to educate citizens to understand that running your own business is a long-term and difficult process, and you need to be prepared for this. This is also not a way for a business owner to keep himself busy, but a responsible process that has a huge impact on society. It is also absolutely obvious that from now on
saturation
domestic
will face incomparably tougher competition and will be forced to use
all the opportunities for working with society provided by communication technologies, as demonstrated by the German experience.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST
1. Baykov S.V. Communication technologies in the business sphere: tools and sociocultural aspects: dis. ...cand. Philol. Sci. M., 2007.
2. Vodovozova E. How people live in this world. St. Petersburg, 1904, p. 40-45.
Received 06/10/08.
STEREOTYPES OF NATIONAL CULTURE IN INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
A. A. Panyagin
Every people, every nation has its own ideas about the world around them, and develops certain stereotypes - both regarding themselves, behavior and traditions.
The encyclopedic dictionary defines a social stereotype as “a schematic, standardized image or idea of social phenomenon or object, usually emotional
tions within their cultural are spatially colored and have a large
language, and in relation to representatives of other linguistic and cultural space. Fe-
stability... expresses a person’s habitual attitude towards any phenomenon, formed under the influence of social conditions and previous experience...”
For a long time, there has been a debate about the definition of the concept “ste- There are different points of view regarding the stereotype”, attempts are being made to identify ways to form
nomen and the concept of “stereotype” attracts the attention of researchers (I. S. Kon, V. V. Krasnykh, U. Lippman, I. Yu. Markovina, A. V. Pavlovskaya, Yu. A. Sorokin, N. V. Ufimtseva and etc.).
regarding this problem. We will consider the phenomenon of stereotype as a concept that includes the ideas of one nation about the culture of another nation as a whole.
formation and dissemination of national stereotypes in society, the issue of their influence on relations between peoples is discussed.
mi. There is no consensus among researchers
lei and regarding the legality of using the word “stereotype” itself. The concept of stereotype in modern humanities is interdisciplinary in nature. Initially developed on the basis of sociology and social psychology in the 1920s, the concept of stereotype later became the subject of analysis from the point of view of communication theory, ethnology, literary and cultural history, and philosophy of language. National stereotypes are studied in different sciences - sociology, psychology, political science, philology, history, and each science interprets this phenomenon in its own way.
The term “stereotype” [from Greek. stereos solid, typos imprint] introduced into scientific circulation by the American sociologist W. Lippmann. The term gained universal recognition thanks to his work “Public Opinion” (1922), in which stereotypes were defined as “the pictures in our heads.” All further definitions of a stereotype as a linguistic, philosophical, socio-psychological (ethnographic, cultural-behavioural) phenomenon are in one way or another based on Lippmann’s definition, to one degree or another emphasizing various aspects of this phenomenon - its static nature, affirmation, hypertrophy (tendentiousness) . Developing the concept of a stereotype from the point of view of social psychology, U. Lippmann noted important feature of this concept - focus on a certain perfect image the world, which is formed in the minds of representatives of a particular community, and the ability to meet public expectations.
Stereotypes allow a person to form an idea of the world as a whole, to go beyond the narrow social, geographical and political environment. Lippmann wrote that stereotypes are so persistently passed on from generation to generation that they are often
accepted as a given, reality, biological fact. If personal experience contradicts the stereotype, most often one of two things happens: the person is inflexible, not interested for some reason in changing his views, or simply does not notice this contradiction, or considers it an exception! confirms the rule, and usually just forgets about it. A receptive, inquisitive person, when a stereotype collides with reality, changes the perception of the world around him.
Lippmann not only introduced the term “stereotype” into scientific circulation and gave it a definition, but also emphasized the importance of this phenomenon. The researcher concluded that the system of stereotypes “... is perhaps the core of our personal tradition, it protects our place in society... and also saves time in our busy lives and helps
us to save ourselves from confusing attempts |
see the world as sustainable and embrace it entirely.” With this understanding of the ste- | rheotype, two important features stand out: ! firstly, it is determined by culture, and secondly | secondly, it is a means of saving labor | your efforts and, accordingly, linguistic | funds.
If Lippmann laid down the theoretical
basics of studying stereotypes, then American |
some scientists K. Braley and D. Katz in 1933 developed | worked the technique that was subsequently received! widespread in for many years| which has become decisive for researchers | national stereotypes. Braley and Katz op- | defined the ethnic stereotype as “stable- | good idea, little consistent with | those realities that it strives to represent | put, and resulting from the inherent property of man, first determine the phenomenon, and then
watch him already.” I
Second world war gave a new impetus | to the study of ethnic stereotypes. She clearly showed what a big role | traditional stable ideas on- | genera about each other, how important it is to study the ways of formation (and, consequently, influence) of such ideas.
Most of the works devoted to the problems of studying ethnic stereotypes that were published during the period under review are based on materials from sociological op- |
Rosov Thus, at the initiative of UNESCO, a large-scale study was conducted to identify how representatives of one country perceive the peoples of other countries, as well as what factors determine their perception. Psychologist O. Klenberg, analyzed
different planes of language - formal (phraseology, language clichés, formulaicity, principles of compatibility within language constructions, etc.) or semantic (semantic connotations of language units accompanying the main/primary meaning). For
Having analyzed the results of this study, the linguistic study of the stereotype specifically defined the concept of “ethnic stereotype”; such aspects as
as a picture in people's minds of their own or other national groups. He believed that such images or ideas are usually widespread in society.
society; as a rule, they are extremely primitive and insensitive to objective reality.
In Russia, the problems of studying stereotypes have not received as much attention as in the West. At the same time, a number of interesting and original concepts have been developed in our country. The concept of N. A. Erofeev, which is based on historical material. The author, although he refuses the term “stereotype,” pays considerable attention to the problems of nations’ perception of each other. After all, “ethnic ideas,” he believes, “are, as it were, the result of acquired information, the result of its processing and a generalized conclusion from it; they often influence relations between nations, ethnic groups and states.”
In ethnolinguistics, the term “stereotype” refers to the content side of language and culture, that is, it is understood as a mental (thought) stereotype that correlates with the picture of the world. Language picture
the world and the linguistic stereotype are correlated as part and whole, while the linguistic stereotype is understood as a judgment or several judgments relating to a specific object of the extra-linguistic world.
The concept of a stereotype has turned out to be widely in demand in modern linguistics (works by E. Bartminsky, E. L. Berezovich, U. Quasthoff, I. M. Kobozeva, L. P. Krysin, I. Panasyuk, V. A. Plungyan, E. V. Rakhilina, etc.). From the position of linguists, stereotypes are considered to be conventionally established semantic and/or formal constructions that form the cultural and linguistic image of an object; Thus, within the framework of the linguistic approach, a stereotype can refer to two different sciences, we can draw the following conclusions:
stereotype and its linguistic sign, stereotype and the meaning of the word (stereotype and cognitive semantics), cognitive structure of the stereotype, ways of conceptualizing linguistic reality. A stereotype is also understood as a subjectively determined representation of an object, in which descriptive and evaluative features coexist and which is the result of the interpretation of reality within the framework of socially developed cognitive models.
The works of the above linguists note that ethnocultural stereotypes perform the following functions:
Function of socio-ethnic integration. The stereotype, on the one hand, satisfies the mental need to save cognitive effort, on the other hand, the social need to maintain the internal cohesion of the community and its opposition to other human communities;
The protective function of ethnic stereotypes is manifested in the fact that they contribute to the preservation of the traditional value system both in relation to one’s own community (auto-stereotypes) and in relation to “strangers” (heterostereotypes);
The communicative function of ethnic stereotypes serves to exchange information between representatives of “one’s own” community (how to identify “one’s own” among “strangers” and “alien” among “one’s own”);
by using cognitive function ethnic stereotypes form the image of the outside world and one’s own microcosm;
The manipulative function of ethnic stereotypes lies in the fact that, under certain conditions, they can act as a weapon of mental influence on the masses for ideological and political purposes.
Having analyzed the concept of “stereotype” in
Each person has an individual personal experience, a special form of perception of the world around him, on the basis of which a so-called “picture of the world” is created in his head, which includes the objective part and the subjective assessment of reality by the individual. Stereotype is part of this picture;
Most scientists studying this problem note that the main feature of stereotypes is their cultural determination: a person’s ideas about the world are formed under the influence of the cultural environment in which he lives;
Stereotypes shared by the majority of people may change depending on the historical, international, and internal political situation in a particular country;
A stereotype is not only a mental image, but also its verbal shell, that is, stereotypes can also exist at the linguistic level - in the form of a norm.
Thus, a stereotype is a relatively stable, generalizing image or a series of characteristics (often false) that are characteristic of representatives of their own cultural and linguistic space or representatives of other nations; a person’s idea of the world, formed under the influence of the cultural environment (in other words, it is a culturally determined idea), existing both in the form of a mental image and in the form of a verbal shell; the process and result of communication (behavior) according to certain semiotic models. A stereotype (as a generic concept) includes a standard, which is a non-linguistic reality, and a norm that exists at the linguistic level. Stereotypes can be either the characteristics of another nation or everything that concerns one nation’s ideas about the culture of another nation as a whole: general concepts, norms of speech communication, behavior, moral and etiquette norms, traditions, customs, etc.
Using the definition of a stereotype in its broadly understood in the context of national culture, it is advisable to consider some common features the nature of a certain social group. In this case they talk about national character.
The concept of character in psychology is used to designate a set of stable individual traits personalities that manifest themselves in her activities and communication. In the past, it was assumed that each people had its own special "spirit", and the problem national character focused on clarifying the characteristics of this “spirit.” National character from this point of view is understood as a stable set of values, attitudes, and behavioral norms specific to a given culture. National specificity is revealed by comparing the norms and traditions of communication between different peoples.
People perceive ethnocultural stereotypes, which are understood by many as a myth, as models that must be conformed to. Therefore, stereotypical ideas about the characteristics of national character have a certain influence on people, stimulating in them the formation of those character traits and those norms of speech behavior that are reflected in pragmatic clichés, which are important factor in international relations.
In the works of many researchers, national character appears as a specific set of real features of a nation. Noting the national specificity of each nation, it includes: self-awareness, habits, tastes, traditions associated with national feelings, national culture, way of life, national pride and national stereotypes in relation to other nationalities. It turned out that most people have very stable stereotypes in relation to a certain national character, that is, the belief that representatives of some nations demonstrate fairly persistent ideas about the existence of specific sets of traits in other nations. It is important that often these stereotypes depend on how this nation “behaves” in a given time period.
According to D. B. Parygin, “there is no doubt about the existence of psychological characteristics in various social groups, layers and classes of society, as well as nations and peoples.” N. Dzhandildin comes from a similar view, who defines national character as “consistent
a collection of specific psychological traits that have become, to a greater or lesser extent,
nor characteristic of a particular socio-ethnic community in specific economic, cultural and natural conditions its development."
S. M. Harutyunyan, who also recognizes the existence of a national character, or “psychological make-up of a nation,” defines it as “a peculiar national flavor of feelings and emotions, way of thinking and action, stable and national features of habits and traditions, formed under the influence of the conditions of material life , features of the historical development of a given nation and manifested in the specifics of its national culture."
A fairly widespread opinion about national character is that it is not a set of specific, unique traits for a given people, but a peculiar set of universal human traits. V. G. Kostomarov in a plenary report at the opening of the “Russian Language Week in France” in March 1998
said the same about national culture: “ National culture- this is by no means a set of unique features inherent to this people, but a specific set of universal human traits and ideas.” Yu. V. Bromley also spoke “only about the relative specificity of national character traits, the nuances of their manifestation.”
In the process of perceiving the stereotypes of the culture of another people, a certain attitude towards them is formed. Most often they are perceived as something alien. This is how a conflict of cultures arises - the result of discrepancies between what is accepted (and these are stereotypes) in one’s own and a foreign culture for the recipient. The clash of stereotypes characteristic of different cultures (i.e., cultural conflict) can create difficulties in communication, cause “culture shock” and thus lead to a misunderstanding of the culture of another people.
There are autostereotypes that reflect what people think about themselves, and heterostereotypes related to other people, which are more critical than autostereotypes. For example, what is considered a manifestation of prudence among one’s own people, is considered a manifestation of greed among another people. As an illustration, here are the stereotypical ideas of Russians regarding Germans.
1. Love of beer. It cannot be said that beer is some kind of nationally specific drink of the Germans. Other nations also drink beer. But at the same time, everyone recognizes that beer is to such an extent German invention that all of Germany, we can safely say, flows with this foamy drink of amber, pale yellow, brown or milky brown color. “Passion for beer and skill is excellent
cook it
characteristic feature German-
tsev, and this has distinguished them since the most ancient times.” Already in the Middle Ages, thus, most researchers considered beer to be one of the main drinks.
lei adhere to the point of view that national character is a set of character traits inherent in a particular nation. In our opinion, this understanding of national character is quite narrow. We agree with S. M. Harutyunyan, who defines national character as a set of character traits, traditions, habits of a particular nation, formed under the influence of the cultural and historical development of a given country. Thus, a parallel can be drawn between two concepts - “national
nal character" and "stereotype": they are equivalent to each other, identical. Their only difference is that the concept of “national character” is generic, and “stereotype” is specific, i.e. part of the national character.
th character.
The Germans call beer flüssiges Brot, which literally translates as “liquid bread”.
2. The bureaucracy of the Germans, which the Russians have heard about, is by no means a myth. In order to spend even a couple of days in Germany, a foreigner must fill out a lot of forms.
3. Attitude to business. Deutsch sein heisst, eine Sache um ihrer selbst willen treiben, which literally means “To be German is to do a thing for its own sake.” This catchphrase goes back to the work of Richard Wagner “Deutsche Kunst und deutsche Politik” (1867), where he writes: “...was deutsch sei: nämlich, die Sache, die man treibt, um ihrer selbst und der Freude an ihr willen treiben... "(The Germans are hardworking and ready to complete any task
end, often victorious.) We believe that such an attitude to business arose from a love of order.
4. The Germans are famous for their neatness, love of order, cleanliness, and punctuality. Everything that is done in everyday life, must be done properly, superficiality in business is not approved in Germany. The Germans’ love for order is reflected in proverbs:
Ordnung ist das halbe Leben. (Order is the soul of every business.)
Ordnung muss sein. (There must be order.)
Heilige Ordnung, segensreiche Himmelstochter. (Holy order is the blessed son of heaven.)
5. Rudeness/arrogance. Many Russians tend to think that Germans are a rude nation, but in reality they are simply straightforward. Any German will almost always tell you what he really thinks. Germans are considered arrogant because their language sounds arrogant and because they think they know everything (even if they don't).
6. There are a lot of rules and regulations in Germany, and to foreigners, especially Russians, they do not seem particularly important. If you break generally accepted rules, it will immediately become clear to a German that you are a foreigner.
7. Lack of a sense of humor. This is not to say that Germans do not have a sense of humor, it is simply different from that of Russians, and manifests itself differently in different situations. For us, German humor may seem serious due to the bureaucracy of the Germans, large quantity rules and regulations and the Germans' proverbial love of order.
8. Germans use the handshake gesture wherever they are and whoever they meet. A handshake is considered a courtesy. Only young people and close friends replace the handshake with some other gesture.
Willy Hellpach (1877-1955), German doctor and psychologist, Minister of Culture of Baden-Württemberg and subsequently Prime Minister of this state, published the book “German Character” in 1954. In it he analyzes the main features of the German character. According to the author, despite
all the changes and vicissitudes of historical j
situations, the German character is especially
the fundamentals turned out to be stable and unchangeable
nal properties: Schaffensdrag “thirst for creative activity”; Gründlichkeit “solidity”; Ordnungsliebe "love of order"; j Eigensinn, Dickkopfigkeit “willfulness”, “stubborn-;
stvo"; Vertraumtheit "dreamy" and j
Manierverachtung "neglect of good [manners".
A.V. Pavlovskaya distinguishes two categories!
stereotypes: superficial and deep. Superficial stereotypes - j
these are the ideas about a particular people,\
which are determined by historical, international
native, internal political situation or j other temporary factors. These stereo | types change depending on the situation in the first world and society. Their duration would be j
depends on the overall stability of the environment!
society. These are, as a rule, representational images; tions related to specific historical- I
our realities. Superficial Stereotypes I
are of undoubted interest before i
everything for historians, as well as everyone who is interested in
is pushed by socio-political processes, j
happening in society. I
Unlike superficial, deep |
stereotypes are unchanged. They don't change in I
passage of time. Deep stereotypes about - I
have amazing stability, and are named
but they are of the greatest interest! to study the characteristics of national-!
character: the stereotypes themselves give mothers j
al to study the people who are - I
being the object of stereotyping, and assessments of the character | terize the features of the group in which j they are common.
At the heart of the formation of ethnic co- |
knowledge and culture as regulators of j
human knowledge act as innate, j
and acquired in the process of socialization - I
tion factors - cultural stereotypes, which j
ry are acquired from the moment as soon as j
person begins to identify with |
a certain ethnic group, a certain cultural |
swarm and realize oneself as their element. Sovo- I
the totality of mental stereotypes of an ethnos from - j
known to each of its representatives. Stereo I
types are used by native speakers in stan- j
dart communication situations. And domin- !
a practitioner in a stereotype can become a practitioner!
literally any, and not just the logically main behavior of a person in any society, typical
The stability of a culture and its viability are determined by the extent to which the structures that determine its unity and integrity are developed. The integrity of culture presupposes the development of cultural stereotypes - stereotypes of behavior, perception, understanding, communication, i.e. stereotypes of the general picture of the world. V. A. Maslova emphasizes that the frequency of occurrence of certain objects and phenomena in people’s lives plays an important role in the formation of stereotypes, often expressed in longer human contacts with these objects compared to others, which leads to stereotyping of such objects.
Let us note that the behavior of each person is individual and diverse, but despite
zirovanny, i.e. it is subject to the norms developed in a given society.
So, stereotypes exist in any society, but it is especially important to emphasize that the set of stereotypes for each of them is highly specific. The regulation of human behavior within the native cultural and linguistic space is greatly influenced by cultural stereotypes, which begin to be assimilated precisely from the moment when a person begins to recognize himself as part of a certain ethnic group, part of a certain culture. Thus, we can distinguish two forms of behavior in a particular sociocultural space: free, variable behavior (individual for each person) and regulated behavior, subject to the stereotypes existing in a given society.
] to this, we can confidently say that the memory of behavior.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST
1. Harutyunyan S. M. The nation and its mental makeup. Krasnodar, 1966.
2. Bromley Yu. V. Ethnicity and ethnography. M., 1975.
3. Vodovozova E. N. How people live in this world. Germans. St. Petersburg, 1904.
4. Dzhandildin N. The nature of national psychology. Alma-Ata, 1971.
5. Erofeev N. A. Foggy Albion. M., 1982.
6. Maslova V. A. Linguoculturology. M., 2001.
7. New illustrated encyclopedic dictionary/ ed. count : V.I.. Borodulin [etc.] M.: Bolshaya Russian encyclopedia, 2000.
8. Pavlovskaya A. V. Ethnic stereotypes in the light of intercultural communication // Vestn. Moscow State University. Ser. 19. Linguistics and intercultural communication. 1998. № 1.
9. Parygin D. B. Public mood. M., 1966.
10. Katz D., Braly K. Racial Stereotypes in One Hundred College Students // Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. 1933. Vol. 28.
In understanding the phenomena of “linguistic picture of the world” and “value picture of the world,” the concept of “stereotype” plays an important role. Most dictionaries note that the word “stereotype” has a negative meaning. An example is the definition of a stereotype, which is given by the psychology dictionary compiled by Mike Cordwell: “A stereotype is a rigid, often simplified idea about a specific group or category of people. Since we are generally prone to simplifications, we form stereotypes to make other people’s behavior more predictable. These stereotypes are often negative in nature and based on prejudice and discrimination. Stereotypes are not necessarily false; they usually contain some grain of truth. They are shared by a significant number of people, which generally contributes to their rooting. Stereotypes may change over time, but their bearers often find it difficult to break free from internalized ideas.” [Cordwell 2000: 46]
In the Brief Dictionary of Cognitive Terms we find the following definition: “A stereotype is a standard opinion about social groups or about individuals as representatives of these groups. A stereotype has a logical form of judgment in a sharply simplifying and generalizing form, with an emotional connotation, attributing certain properties or attitudes to a separate class of persons, or, conversely, denying them these properties or attitudes. Expressed in the form of a sentence like: Italians are musical, Southerners are hot-tempered, professors are absent-minded, etc.” [ Brief dictionary cognitive terms 1997: 198]
The “stereotype” phenomenon is considered not only in the works of psychologists, but also linguists, sociologists, ethnographers, cognitive scientists, ethnopsycholinguists (U. Lippman, Yu.D. Apresyan, Yu.A. Sorokin, Yu.E. Prokhorov, E. Bartminsky, etc. .)
Representatives of each of these sciences highlight in a stereotype those properties that they notice from the standpoint of their field of study, and therefore social stereotypes, communication stereotypes, mental stereotypes, cultural stereotypes, ethnocultural stereotypes, etc. are highlighted. For example, social stereotypes manifest themselves as stereotypes of thinking and behavior of an individual. Ethnocultural stereotypes are a generalized idea of the typical features that characterize a particular people.
The term “stereotype” (Greek stereos - solid, typos - imprint) was introduced into scientific circulation by the American sociologist W. Lippman. By stereotype, Lippman understood a special form of perception of the world around us, which has a certain influence on the data of our senses before this data reaches our consciousness. . According to Lippmann, a person, trying to comprehend the world around him in all its inconsistency, creates a “picture in his head” regarding those phenomena that he has not directly observed. A person has a clear idea of most things even before he directly encounters them in life. Such stereotypical ideas are formed under the influence of the cultural environment of a given individual. “In most cases, we do not first see and then define it, we first define this or that phenomenon for ourselves, and then we observe it. “.
V.V. Krasnykh understands by stereotype “the structure of the mental-lingual complex, formed by an invariant set of valence bonds attributed to a given unit and representing the concept of the phenomenon behind this unit” [Krasnykh 2001: 78].
According to Yu.A. Sorokin’s stereotype is “a certain process and result of communication according to certain semiotic models, the list of which is closed due to certain semiotic-technical principles accepted in a certain society. In this case, the semiotic model is implemented at the social, socio-psychological levels (standard) or at the linguistic, socio-psychological levels (norm). The standard and norm exist in two forms: as a stamp (overly explicit complex sign) or as a cliche (insufficiently explicit complex sign) [Sorokin 1998: 56].
Maslova V.A. distinguishes a behavioral stereotype - the most important among stereotypes, which can turn into a ritual. In her opinion, “stereotypes have much in common with traditions, myths, rituals, but they differ from the latter in that traditions and customs are characterized by their objectified significance, openness to others, and stereotypes remain at the level of hidden mentalities that exist among “their own” [Maslova 2001: 208].
V.A. Maslova also emphasizes that “the basis for the formation of ethnic consciousness and culture as regulators of human behavior are both innate and acquired in the process of socialization factors - cultural stereotypes that are acquired from the moment a person begins to identify himself with a certain ethnic group, a certain culture and recognize oneself as their element” [ibid.: 59].
Thus, the formation of stereotypes is based on cognitive processes, and stereotypes perform a number of cognitive functions: the function of schematization and simplification, the function of forming and storing group ideology and other mental functions.
In our study, the greatest interest is in ethnic stereotypes that embody the ideas about our own and other peoples inherent in ordinary consciousness.
N.V. Ufimtseva differentiates ethnic stereotypes and cultural stereotypes: “ethnic stereotypes are not accessible to self-reflection of a “naive” member of an ethnic group and are facts of behavior and the collective unconscious, they cannot be specially taught, but cultural stereotypes are accessible to self-reflection and are facts of behavior, individual unconscious consciousness, they can already be taught” [Ufimtseva 1996: 140].
Ethnic stereotypes not only summarize certain information, but also express an emotional attitude towards an object. What in relation to one’s own people is called reasonable economy, in relation to others can be called stinginess. What is characterized by “oneself” as perseverance, strength of character by the “stranger” is called stubbornness. The same psychological complex, depending on the relationship to its bearer, can be called spontaneity, carelessness, and irresponsibility [Dictionary of cognitive terms 1997: 189].
The concept of N.A. seems interesting and scientifically substantiated. Erofeev, which is based on historical material. “Ethnic ideas are, as it were, the result of assimilated information, the result of its processing and a generalized conclusion from it; they often influence relations between nations, ethnic groups and states.” [Erofeev 1982: 11].
The main reason for the development of stereotypes is associated with the protection of group values as a purely social function, realized in the form of affirmation of one’s dissimilarity and specificity. “Stereotypes are a fortress that protects the traditions, views, beliefs, and values of an individual; he is comfortable behind the walls of this fortress, because there he feels safe. Therefore, any attack on stereotypes is an attack on the safety of the individual; he regards such actions as an attack on the foundations of his worldview” [Platonov 2001: 139].
One of central problems that arise when studying stereotypes is how objective they are and how they reflect reality. There is no consensus on this issue. If the stereotype is based on reality, then it should be relatively stable, but if it is completely and completely false, then it should change depending on the historical, international and even internal political situation in a particular country.
There are autostereotypes, which reflect what people think about themselves, and heterostereotypes, which relate to another people, which relate to another people, and they are more critical. For example, what is considered a manifestation of prudence among one’s own people, is considered a manifestation of greed among another people. People perceive ethnocultural stereotypes as models that must be conformed to. Therefore, stereotypes have a fairly strong influence on people, stimulating in them the formation of character traits that are reflected in the stereotype.
“Specialists in ethnic psychology who study ethnocultural stereotypes note that nations at a high level of economic development emphasize qualities such as intelligence, efficiency, and enterprise, while nations with more backward economies emphasize kindness, cordiality, and hospitality” [Maslova 2001: 58]. This can be confirmed by the research of S.G. Ter-Minasova, according to the results of which professionalism, hard work, responsibility, etc. are more valued in English society, and in Russian - hospitality, sociability, and fairness [Ter-Minasova 2000: 255].
According to E.Yu. Prokhorov, a stereotype is a super-fixed phenomenon that does not change even in the face of real experience that refutes its truth. [Prokhorov 1997: 124].
According to Maslova V.A. An important role in the formation of stereotypes is played by the frequency of occurrence of certain objects and phenomena in people’s lives, often expressed in longer human contacts with these objects compared to others, which leads to the stereotyping of such objects [Maslova 2001: 109].
For all their schematism and generality, stereotypical ideas about other peoples and other cultures prepare for a collision with a foreign culture and reduce cultural shock. “Stereotypes allow a person to form an idea of the world as a whole, to go beyond the boundaries of his narrow social and geographical world” [Pavlovskaya 1998: 139].
Yu. P. Platonov defines a stereotype as “a stable mental formation in which some rather complex fact of reality is reflected in a schematized, simplified and emotional way, primarily the image of a social group or community, easily extended to all its representatives. Stereotypes are sensually colored images that accumulate the social and psychological experience of communication and relationships between individuals” [Platonov 2001: 131].
The most popular source of stereotypical ideas about national characters are the so-called interethnic jokes, that is, jokes built on a template plot: representatives different nations, having found themselves in the same situation, react to it differently, in accordance with those traits of their national character that are attributed to them in the homeland of the joke.
An anecdote, being a text created by the people and for the people, is a reflection of the stereotypes that have developed in a particular linguistic and cultural environment.
Having analyzed the concept of “stereotype” in various sciences, it can be noted that each person has individual personal experience, a special form of perception of the world around him, on the basis of which a so-called “picture of the world” is created in his head, which includes an objective (invariant) part and a subjective an individual's assessment of reality. The stereotype is an integral part of this picture.
The main feature of stereotypes is their determination by culture - a person’s ideas about the world are formed under the influence of the cultural environment in which he lives. Stereotypes are shared by most people, but they can change depending on the historical, international, and internal political situation in a particular country;
