The earliest monuments of Turkic literature are works written in Turkic runic writing. They are associated with the cultural life of several states: the Turkic Khaganate, which arose in the mid-6th century on the territory of Northern Mongolia and then at the beginning of the 7th century broke up into the Western Turkic and Eastern Turkic Khaganates; It was in the latter, in the first third of the 8th century, that the so-called Orkhon writings appeared - inscriptions on funeral steles, which depict in poetic form historical events in the genre of historical-heroic poems that arose under the influence of the heroic epic. Another group of runic texts - the Yenisei epitaphs - is associated with the military-political unification of the Yenisei Kyrgyz (according to Chinese sources - the state of Khyagas, defined by some historians as the ancient Khakass state). By genre, these are epitaphal lyrics, dating back no earlier than the 7th century and no later than the 11th-12th centuries. There is strong evidence that ancient Turkic poems were called the term yr/yyr, which means “song”, “poem”.

Ancient Uyghur poems were called koshug- “poem”, “poem”. This term, in this and phonetically modified form, has been preserved, especially in folklore, to the present day. Another distinctively Turkic term is tagshut (takshut) - “poems”. The term tagshut was used in pairs with the word “shlok” to mean “verse”, “poetry”. In addition to the mentioned term, in Manichaean verses the term kyug / kyuk was used, which meant “verses”, “poem”, “song”, possibly “hymn”. It is assumed that the kyug had musical accompaniment. The term bashyk is also found in Manichaean texts - “hymn”, “song”. In poems with Buddhist content, the term padaka was used - verse. This term is found relatively rarely, rather in the meaning of a poetic line. The term kavi (kavya) in the meaning of “poem”, “epic” is also rarely found. However, the term is not considered to denote a genre, but appears to indicate a particular style of presentation.

New period in Turkic poetics

A new period in the development of Turkic-language literature and poetics begins after the formation in the 10th century on the territory of Eastern Turkestan, in Semirechye and Southern Prityanynan, a Turkic state under the rule of the Karakhanid dynasty (927-1212), the adoption of Islam (a process that began with Turkic peoples in the 10th century and lasted for many centuries) and the conquest of the Turks in Central Asia, where literature in Persian was already flourishing at that time. Under the influence of Arabic and Persian literature, a new literary language- Turks - by borrowing large quantity words from Arabic and Persian, especially in poetry.

In the 11th century, during the heyday of the Karakhanid state, the first Turkic-language work appeared- a didactic poem written in aruza meter (quantitative versification) by a mutakarib in the form of mesnevi (masnavi) with a large inclusion of quatrains of the rubai type, the three final chapters are written as qasidas. Thus, the first work in the history of classical Turkic poetry included several genres of Arabic and Persian literature, which later developed independently among the Turks and became isolated into separate genres. From that time on, the creation of classical literature began, which reached its peak in Central Asia during the Timurid era, in Asia Minor in the Ottoman Empire, going through a natural stage of formation in the Golden Horde state association and at the courts of the Asia Minor rulers. This literature was created in two very close variants of the Turkic literary language: Central Asian Turki (Central Asian Turkic literary language of the Middle Ages, or Chagatai language, later called Old Uzbek) and Asia Minor Turki (Ottoman or Old Turkish language), which, depending on the territory of distribution, had small Tatar , Turkmen and Azerbaijani dialect differences.

Classical Turkic poetry was created on the basis of Arab-Persian poetics, which included the versification system - aruz, the theory of rhyme and the theory of poetic figures. However, over time, a Turkic version of Aruz was developed, based not only on canonical rules, but also on the actual practice of adapting the Turkic language, which did not have a phonological distinction between long and short vowels, to the quantitative meters of Aruz. As a result, the ancient Turkic tonic-temporal versification, in which the rhythmic parts of heterosyllabic lines were equalized by the time of their pronunciation, was replaced by a system of quantitative meters with a strictly regulated alternation of long (in borrowed Arabic and Persian words or conventionally long in Turkic words) and short syllables.

The genre system of classical Turkic-language literature was the same throughout the vast space from Central to Asia Minor and was almost identical to those systems that existed in Arabic and Persian literature. It should be said that by the time of the heyday of Turkic-language literature in the mid-15th - first third of the 16th century in Central Asia and the 16th century in Turkey, these genre forms, like the entire Aruz, were not perceived as something alien, classical literature developed precisely in these genre forms, where the content (theme of the work), the type of rhyme and the number of beits were taken into account (a beit is a unit of verse, consisting of two misras - hemistiches). The epic genre is mesnavi (masnavi), the hemistiches rhyme: aa, bb, cc, etc. in any arbitrary volume. All other genres are lyrical: ghazal, rhyming hemistiches: aa, ba, sa, etc., a small number of beits, the content is love-lyrical, often with Sufi overtones; qasida - rhyme as in a ghazal, but a much larger number of beits, contains either madh - praise (panegyric qasida), or hajv - reproach (satirical qasida), there is also the so-called philosophical qasida; kyta, type of rhyme: ab, cb, db, etc., a small number of beits, often two, which in Europeanized publications is reproduced as a quatrain: abcb, thematically quite freely; rubai, the type of rhyme is predominantly: aaba, rarely - aaaa (called rubaitarane), rubai must be written in meter x azaji always contains only two beits, is devoted mainly to love lyrics, but there may be other topics; fard, one beit, hemistichs or rhymes: aa or not: ab, the themes are very different - the beauty of the beloved, the experiences of love, the sorrows of separation, the meaning of life, descriptions of nature in connection with the experiences of love. Classical Turkic poetry created its own genre, which was not found in either Arabic or Persian literature. This is a tuyug, which contained only two beits, rhymed like rubai (aaba, aaaa) or like kyta (abcb), but was always written in ramal meter and in rhyming words a poetic figure was necessarily used - tajnis (homonym words). All of the above types of rhymes form nonstrophic forms of verse. Nonstrophic forms also include such a complex structure as the mustezad (mustazod); usually composed of one of the modifications of the khazaj meter, the type of rhyme like in a ghazal: aa, ba, sa, etc., but at the end of each hemistich two more feet of the same meter were added with its own rhyme, also of the type of ghazal rhyme: adad bead cgad and etc. Rubai and tu yug can be considered stanzas as solid forms of verse.

All types of musammat are strophic forms: murabba (the hemistiches rhyme: aaaa, aaab, cccb, dddb, etc.), muhammas (aaaaa, aaaab, ccccb, ddddb, etc.), musaddas (aaaaaa, aaaaab, cccccb, etc.), those. 4 hemistiches, 5 hemistiches, 6 hemistiches are involved in the construction of the form - these are the most common forms, but there could be 7 hemistiches - musabba, 8 hemistiches - musamman, 9 hemistiches - mutassa, 10 hemistiches - muashshar. Such verses were written for famous ghazals, and additional hemistiches were composed for each beit of the ghazal. The strophic form is tarjiband - a chain of ghazals united by a common refrain consisting of one beit, which is repeated after each ghazal; the beit of the refrain should have an organic semantic connection with each ghazal. The first ghazal: aa, ba, sa and so on until the end, then the refrain follows: dd, then comes the second ghazal with its rhyme and after it the refrain: dd then the third ghazal and the refrain. This form was used in works with Sufi themes. A variant of this form is the tarkibband, which was also a chain of ghazals, but after each of them there was a new beit. The first ghazal: aa, ba, sa, etc., then a new beit: dd, then the second ghazal with its own rhyme, after it another new beit: her and so on until the end of the work.

Existed and used so-called applied forms are very popular. For example, lugz is a type of charade that contained a description of the characteristics of an object, but did not name it itself. Muwashshah is a type of acrostic poem, where some marked letters form either individual words or entire lines - both poetic and prosaic. Muamma is a riddle; it contains hints not of the characteristics of the mystery character, but of the letters in his name. Many classical poets were fond of this form: Jami, Fizuli, Navoi. Tarikh - a date was encrypted in poetic form. Munazire (munazora) was a qasida or another form that contained a competition, a dispute between two rivals: a bow and arrow, winter and summer, etc.

Since the 16th century, figured verses have become widespread. For example, “square verses” - murabba. The poem fit into a square and could be read in any direction: from right to left, i.e. usually, but also from left to right and from top to bottom, the meaning did not change. Mudavvar is a poem enclosed in a circle, divided into segments; such poems could be read starting from any segment. Muakkad is a poem in the form of a five and six-pointed star. Mushadjar - poems in the form of a tree. There was a practice of writing poems in two languages, this form was called mulamma or shiru shakar (literally, milk and sugar), if poetry was written in three languages, it was called shahdu shiru shakar (literally translated: honey, milk and sugar).

Poetics also provided for the rules for creating prose- nasr, which could be of three types: nasr-i muradjaz - some meter was observed, but there was no rhyme, nasr-i musadja - rhymed prose, but without meter, nasr-i ari - free prose. Prose works were called name - “composition”, “book”, but this word also means “message”, “letter”, so it is sometimes included in the designation of poetic works, for example, sakiname (Bacchic-poem). It must be said that in the practice of Chagatai poetry, the form of a work could be more important than its content. So, although the term mesnevi was used to refer to poems, i.e. epic genre, the author could write a lyric poem and call it mesnevi based on the rhyme system used in it. Sometimes, on the contrary, it was the content that was most important. Thus, the genre marsiya - lamentation, lamentation for the deceased could be created in the form of ghazal, qasida, mukhammas, musaddas, tarjiband and tarkibband.

In the Turkic-language works on poetics “Mizan Alavzan” by Navoi (1441-1501) and in the “Treatise on Aruz” by Babur (1483-1530) a number of poetic forms, which were inherent only in Turkic-language poetry. One of them - tuyug was a developed literary genre, others were on the border between folklore and literature. This is Türkic, which was composed by one of the modifications of the Ramal meter; Koshuk was of two types: one was composed with a version of the madid meter, the other with a version of ramal; chinge was composed as a variant of the munsarich meter; muhabbatname - one of the types of khazaj meter; arzvari (arzuvari) was of two types: one was composed with a variant of the Khazaj meter, the other with a variant of Ramal. In Babur's treatise, the chinge form is called oleng and another form is indicated, which Navoi does not have - tarkhan i, composed in rajaz meter. Both authors call some of these forms songs. For example, arzvari, according to Navoi, is a song of the Iraqi Turkmen, and chinge (oleng) is a song that was performed at weddings. Some modern researchers believe that this form was common in the Middle Ages among the Turks who spoke the Azerbaijani dialect of the Oghuz Turks.

Aruz meters are also used in the works of ashugs(ashyk - lit., lover, folk poet-musician) in Turkey. One of these forms, known in Ashug poetry since the 16th century, was called divan, it was composed with a variant of the ramal meter and sung to its own melody, it consisted of stanzas like the classical form of murabba, sometimes with a refrain after each stanza. In the future, it could have a rhyme system, like in mukhammas and musaddas. Another poetic form of folk ashug poetry was semai, composed in khazaj meter and also performed to its own melody. There was also a form of yakli semai (extended semai), which rhymed like a ghazal and followed the structure of the mustezad form of classical poetry. Other forms were composed: selis - a variant of the ramal meter (different from the diwan form), calendars - a variant of the khazaj meter, both forms had the rhyme scheme murabba, mukhammas, musaddas and were popular until the 19th century. Ayakly calendars (extended calendars) also had the appearance of a classic mustezada, but was performed to a different melody. The form of shatranch was composed by one of the variants of the rajaz meter, also performed to its own melody, rhymed like murabba, only the first two beits had a rhyme: abab.

In addition to poetic meters adapted to the meters of aruz, in Ashug poetry there were also syllabic verses - hezhe - with a two- and three-part line structure characteristic of Turkic poetry. These were predominantly 7-8 syllables and 11 syllables, although there are also lines of larger length, for example, 14 syllables. Ashug syllabic verses are called koshmatyurkyu (Azerbaijani goshma, Turkmen, goshgy), the rhyme system is like in murabba, but the first stanza is either with a rhyme, as in kyta (abcb), or with a cross rhyme (abab), the second stanza: dddb, etc. . The koshma form has a stringrefrain: abcbd or ababd (first storf), eeebd (second stanza), gggbd (third stanza), etc. The number of lines in the refrain can be increased. Then, repeating in each stanza, additional lines are added that have their own rhyme: abcbdd, eeebdd, etc. A complicated form is formed by zinjirleme koshma (koshma connected by a chain), where the first line of each new stanza begins with a repetition of the last word of the last line of the previous stanza. Thus, the syllabic verses of Ashug poetry are predominantly strophic forms, although some verses may also use ghazal rhyme. Poems usually contain a small number of stanzas (3, rarely 10). The shortest form is bayaty-mani, which is a 7-syllable with a rhyme like rubai (aaba), modern tradition perceived as a quatrain. This form is widespread not only in Turkey (in Eastern Anatolia), but also in Azerbaijan, and comes in a variety of contents: love lyrics, humorous (like ditties) poems, fortune-telling, and even riddle poems). The known form is jinasli mani, i.e. mani, containing a play on words in rhyme. The alagözlü form is a mani with 11 complex lines. Mani cathars is a chain of mani, rhymes: aaba, ccdc, etc., i.e. Each quatrain seems to be separate, but all are connected by a theme. Singers who specialized exclusively in performing mani were called maniji. The form of Ashug poetry güzelleme was dedicated to praising the beauty and virtues of the beloved; the poem was short. The form of tashlam contained satire and social criticism, the form of kochaklam was dedicated to a heroic theme, but compared to destan, the description in such a poem was more figurative, designed for a great emotional effect. The agyt form contained crying, lamentation for the deceased, just like mercier. The muamma form in the tradition of Ashug poetry represented folk riddles in verse. The longest works of Ashug poetry were destans, which could reach several dozen stanzas (Koshmatyurkyu rhyme). Long narratives told about some important military, political and social events. The plots could also be humorous, satirical and parody. In addition to the ashushva poets, there were folk prose storytellers in Turkey - meddahs. They told different stories in the genre of hikaye (story, tale, story). The content of the hikaye were historical, heroic and adventurous love stories about fictional or really existing characters of past times or who were considered such. This could include, for example, biographies of famous war heroes and famous storytellers. The prose narrative could be interrupted by songs that were sung accompanied by a saz, as well as by poetic jokes from the tekerleme. Short story within the narrative was called kyssa, or serkyushte, a separate episode of the narrative was called kol. There were also other, smaller terms for the structural features of the genre, indicating a carefully developed storytelling technique. Med dahi performed on holidays, at weddings, in coffee houses and were very popular. Meddakhs (in Uzbek pronunciation madtsohi) also existed in Central Asia, but they told mainly about the lives of saints.

Forms of syllabic verse were common among Azerbaijani ashugs(heja): keremi, kesikkeremi, geraily, sharqi, shikeste. Turkmen folk songs - aydym - were performed folk singers aydymchi. A humorous song on a love theme is known - varsaki (varsagi) and lale - a girl's song in the form of a quatrain. The turtlik form is very common in Uzbek folk poetry. These are 4 hemistiches (misra), which can be written as aruz (in the rubai meter, i.e. different types Khazaja), and syllabic verses (barmak). The rhyme is very diverse: abab, aaba, abba, aaaa, abcb. The themes of these quatrains are love lyrics, satire, accusatory and humorous motives. Humorous poems were performed by Kazykchi singers. The wedding song yor-yor (yor - beloved) has been known since ancient times, which is mentioned as “chinge” in Navoi’s work on aruza; in a similar treatise by Babur it is called “oleng”. A song with musical accompaniment is called kushik. One of the popular genres of Uzbek folklore, which came from there into the written tradition, is alla - a lullaby song. The performance of aitishuv (lapar) songs has become widespread among the people - a type of choral singing when boys and girls alternately sing verses in the form of ditties. In the Central Asian folklore tradition, dastans (Central Asian pronunciation tradition) were included in the repertoire of poet-storytellers: bakhshi (Uzbek), bagshi (Turkmen), baksy (Karakalpak). Those storytellers who specialized in performing only dastans were called dastanchi. Central Asian, as well as Kazakh dastans, were prose interspersed with poetic inserts written in the form of a koshma (among the Turkmens, goshgy). Sometimes the poetic part almost exceeded the prose part. The content of the dastans was heroic, heroic-romantic, romantic (adventurous love), fairy-tale-fantastic (arrangements of Arabic and Persian fairy-tale epics). The dastans included stories from both folklore and written literature, for example, from the works of Nizami, Navoi, and others.

The genre of humorous ditty was very popular among the Turks., which different nations has similar names: takmak (among the Tatars), takpak (among the Karakalpaks), takhpakh (among the Khakassians). These are equal or relatively equal quatrains with different rhyme systems, with the exception of the Khakass takhpakh. The sound organization of the Khakass takhpakh - the alliterative system - demonstrates the consistently applied principle of alliteration in anaphora, with quatrains often combined into octets. Poetic jokes in Tatar folklore were called samak, in Bashkir - hamak and takmaza. The term bytu Tatars was used to describe historical songs and poems with sad, even tragic content. Bayit in Bashkir folklore are poetic narratives that allowed the narrator to improvise. The epic tales of the Bashkirs - yyr - were performed by improvisational storytellers called sesen.

A narrator-improviser in the Kazakh and Kyrgyz folklore traditions - akyn - performs various works to the accompaniment of dombra or kobza. Performers of only heroic epics - fat or jir - are called zhira and jirchi. From a rhythmic point of view, epics are 7-8 syllables of equal-syllable and relatively equal-syllable verse with inconsistent rhyme. The initial alliteration is rich, which serves as an additional means rhythmic organization verse and its decoration. Alliteration in anaphora and rhyme (often rhymes) organize irregular strophic periods. Akyns, jirau and jirchi periodically participated in aitys (Kyrgyz aitysh) - competitions of storytellers (aytygs) to maintain their authority. If a jirchi in the Kyrgyz folklore tradition specialized in the performance of only one epic work, for example, the epic “Manas” (recorded in the 19th century), it was called manaschi, the epic “Semetey” - semeteychi. narration in epic works changed all the time: from smooth when describing fat (jira) to the accelerated rhythm of zheldirme (in images of horse running, horse racing, etc.) by shortening poetic lines.

The term tolgau in Kazakh literature refers to works of a didactic nature. Tolgau can be anonymous, authored in the oral tradition and literary. Their content is all sorts of teachings, instructions, and reasoning on various occasions. The genre continues the tradition of didactic literature widespread in the Near and Middle East. The form of zhoktau in Kazakh folklore is a ritual, funeral song. The term oleng (song, poetry) refers to 11 complex quatrains with a rubai-type rhyme of lyrical content. Aitysu is a competition in singing songs, when songs are sung one by one, as if in the form of a dialogue.

A special group is formed by the literature and folklore of the Turkic peoples inhabiting Southern and Eastern Siberia, - peoples whose culture developed outside the Muslim world and close contacts with Islamized peoples. In their folklore and literature, the original Turkic rhythmic and sound organization of verse, similar to that found in ancient Turkic literature, continued to exist and develop. The Khakass heroic epic a lyptykh (alyptyg) nymakh is composed of unequally syllabic (6-12 syllables) lines, the regulation of which contains both metrical and stressed principles. The rhythm of such a verse is closely related to the distribution of musical rhythm and the characteristics of guttural singing - hai. The performer of epic tales is called haiji (haichi) nymakhchi. The recitative hai, characteristic of the epic, was also used in the performance of improvised songs - takhpakhs, which can also be performed with a melodic hai. The performer of takhpakhs is called khaydzhitakhpakhchi. In the process of performing the work, haiji subordinates unequally syllabic lines to a rhythmically stable melody, equalizing them by introducing additional vowels - individual syllables and words without a specific meaning (asemantic), stretching the final (stressed) syllables, as well as by reducing vowels, shortening syllables. The sound organization of this verse is represented by alliteration in anaphora, and it can unite from 2 to 1213 lines. Interword alliteration is less clearly expressed. Alyptykh nymakh - strophic works. Haiji performs the work in complete semantic segments, including 29 or more lines, which can be connected by initial alliteration. Since this is an improvisational genre, there is no firm pattern here; a lot depends on the skill of the haiji. In some places in the text you can see rhyme, but these are rather rhymes - a coincidence of sounds in the same grammatical forms. According to the content, alypt nymakhs are heroic, genealogical and mythological poems. The lyrical genre was developed in the form of takhpakh, which, according to the content, was either a quatrain (comic ditties) or an octagon (love lyrics and other themes), however, here there could be deviations from the rules, since this genre is also improvisational. There were also the genres algys - blash wish and haargys - curse.

The epics of the Altai, Tuvan and Yakut peoples are exactly the same in content, the performance of which is also accompanied by guttural singing. The Altai heroic epic - kai cherchek - is performed by the narrator kaichi, who correlates poetic and musical rhythms. In terms of poetry, kai cherchek are relatively equal verses with a small gap in the number of syllables in the lines: from 78 to 1213 syllables. Interverse alliteration covers 28 lines, rhymes are clearly expressed and frequent. The term kozhong (kozhon) denotes historical, everyday and lyrical songs in Altai folklore; they are performed by the singer ojongchi in a normal voice. These are predominantly quatrains (sometimes the number of lines is increased to 6) with 7-8 syllable lines (sometimes 4 and 10 syllables appear) with interverse alliteration that can span all four lines. In Altai folklore, the form algysh ses is also known - good wishes. The Yakut heroic epic - olonkho, performed by the narrator - olonkhosut - is a combination of prosaic and poetic parts. The latter are performed by recitation and singing. The recitation part (recitative) consists of descriptions and those episodes that are presented on behalf of the narrator. The song part is the monologues of everyone characters, different in volume: some are 34 dozen lines of poetry, others are 200, 300, sometimes up to 400 lines. The lines are multisyllabic, the number of syllables ranges from 4 to 14, the rhythm of the verse is controlled by the musical rhythm and guttural singing - khabarga yryata. There is no rhyme; here and there rhymes are visible in the coincidences of grammatical forms. Initial alliteration covers a small number of lines (2-3 lines), sometimes used across a line. Other genres: yrya - song, can be of different content, khokhon - verse, poem, song, yrya-khokhoon - song-verse, algys - good wish, kyryys - curse. The performer of the songs is called yryakhyt.

Foreign Turkology.

Vol. I. Ancient Turkic languages ​​and literatures.

// M.: GRVL. 1986. 384 p.

Responsible editor acad. A.N. Kononov.

Compiled by S.G. Klyashtorny.

[ ]. - 3

I. Benzing. Languages ​​of the Huns, Danube and Volga Bulgarians (Translated from German by V.G. Guzev). - 11

E.J. Pullyblank. The language of the Xiongnu (Translated from English by K.B. Keping). - 29

G. Dörfer. About the language of the Huns (Translated from German by V.G. Guzev). - 71

J. Clauson. The origin of the Turkic “runic” letter (Translated from English by D.D. and E.A. Vasiliev). - 135

A. f. Gaben. The culture of writing and printing among the ancient Turks (Translated by D.D. and E.A. Vasiliev). - 159

A. Bombachi. Turkic literatures. Introduction to history and style (Abridged translation from English by L.V. Goryaeva). - 191

A. f. Gaben. Ancient Turkic literature (Translated from German by D.D. and E.A. Vasiliev). - 294

L. Bazin. Man and the concept of history among the Turks of Central Asia in the 8th century. (Translated from French by D.D. and E.A. Vasiliev). - 345

L. Bazin. The concept of age among the ancient Turkic peoples (Translated from the French by D.D. and E.A. Vasiliev). - 361

Abbreviations of language names. - 379

- 380

Bibliographic information. - 383

The first information about the Turkic peoples was recorded in Europe at the dawn of the Middle Ages, along with the appearance of nomadic tribes near the borders of the Eastern Roman Empire, who came from the hitherto unknown steppes of Central Asia. From the reports of Byzantine diplomats and the works of historians writing in Greek and Latin, we still draw a lot of valuable information about the life, culture and history of the ancient Turkic peoples. Have been subjected more than once linguistic analysis and those few linguistic relics that were brought to us - often in a distorted form - by ancient authors. However, a scientific description of the language and culture of the Turkic peoples began to take shape in Europe much later, after the first clashes with the Ottoman Empire. For several centuries, the Turkological interests of European scholars were limited only to covering the life and history of the Ottoman state, as well as a description of the Turkish-Ottoman language.

Only in the 19th century. European Turkology, primarily linguistics, based on the achievements of comparative historical research in the field of Indo-European studies, significantly expanded the repertoire of subjects studied. For the first time, the languages, culture and history of the Turkic peoples of Eastern Europe, Siberia and Central Asia came into her field of vision as an object of research. The work of a captured Swedish officer who lived in Siberia in 1709-1722 played a significant role in the prehistory of this qualitative leap. F. Tabbert (Stralenberg), “Northern and Eastern parts of Europe and Asia”, where

There was some unsystematized information about the culture and languages ​​of the Turkic and other peoples of Siberia, as well as the first reports of runic monuments on the Yenisei. Most of all, European Turkology of the 19th - early 20th centuries. owes to the works of scientists who worked in Russia - A. Kazem-bek, O.N. Bötlingka, M.A. Castrena, N.I. Ilminsky, N.F. Katanov and mainly V.V. Radlov and his students.

In Western Europe, interest in neo-Ottoman themes was also sparked by the works of Yu. Klyaprot, V. Schott, A. Vambery, but it became especially pronounced after the discoveries of ancient Turkic runic and Uyghur monuments in Mongolia and East Turkestan ( late XIX- beginning of the 20th century). A significant contribution to the comprehensive study of these monuments in textual, linguistic and historiographical terms was made, along with V.V. Radlov, V.V. Bartold, P.M. Melioransky - in Russia, V. Thomsen - in Denmark, A. Lecoq, I. Marquart, F.V.K. Müller, W. Bang - in Germany, Ed. Chavannes, P. Pelliot - in France, O. Stein - in England, O. Donner - in Finland. Although the study of Muslim monuments in Turkic languages ​​also had its own tradition in the works of Western European scientists, yet it was ancient Turkic topics that for a number of decades remained at the center of scientific interests of the most prominent Western Turkologists, only occasionally competing with ongoing Ottoman studies. This was undoubtedly facilitated by the fact that in the centers of Turkic studies there were created large collections monuments from East Turkestan that required processing (Berlin, London, Paris). St. Petersburg - Petrograd - Leningrad remained for many years the Turkological capital of Europe, but at the same time it is impossible to underestimate the contribution to ancient Turkic philology made by German, French and English scientists who published and translated ancient Turkic texts and studied written monuments. The well-known decline in interest in Central Asian topics, observed in the 30s and 40s, was replaced by a new rise that began in the 50s and continues to this day.

Significant factual materials on living Turkic languages ​​accumulated over the previous century, as well as the publication of such important and significant monuments of the language and culture of the Turkic peoples as the ancient Turkic Orkhon-Yenisei runic monuments and numerous ancient Uyghur texts, the “Dictionary” of Mahmud of Kashgar, “Kutadgu bilig”, Polovtsian monuments, extensive monuments in the Central Asian Turks of different areas, in-depth studies on toponymy and onomastics, etymology and the widespread use of the comparative historical method - all this prompted Turkologists to a number of theoretical generalizations both within the framework of the Altai theory and outside it, on the basis of Turkology proper . In general, this caused a deep interest in the history of Turkic languages ​​and peoples, especially in the early stages of ethnic and linguistic processes. The range of scientific studies involves the problems of the “Hunnic” language and the history of the Huns, the relationship between the modern Turkic peoples of the Volga region and the Caucasus and the Proto-Bulgarian tribes, the contribution of ancient Turkic languages ​​to the Slavic languages ​​and to the Hungarian language in the early stages of their development. There has also been a new upsurge in the study of ancient Turkic runic and Uyghur monuments, in particular, issues of the history of ancient Turkic writing and its adaptation, problems of ethnic and cultural relations between the Turkic peoples, as well as between the Turks and their neighbors - other peoples of the Eurasian continent. The role and place of Turkic literatures began to be discussed against the backdrop of a broader literary process. Of particular interest to Western Turkologists is a very specific Central Asian complex - linguistic, literary, religious and general cultural syncretism, characteristic of Central Asia in the 1st - early 2nd millennium AD.

It is these problems, so important for modern Turkology and its theoretical foundations, that attracted the attention of the compilers of the first collection “Foreign Turkology”. Extensive research carried out within the framework of the above topics in our country, the deep interest shown in them in numerous Turkic centers of the USSR, prompted the choice for publication of those works that most reflect the level of relevant research by Western scientists, but not always to a sufficient extent accessible to a wide circle of Soviet Turkologists.

This collection is devoted mainly to the ancient Turkic languages, writings and materials and some aspects of the ethnocultural history of the Turkic tribes associated with them. It opens with three articles authored by I. Benzing, E.J. Pulleyblank and G. Doerfer; they discuss from different perspectives the problems of the language(s) of the Asian and European Huns. The choice was not made by chance, although two of the authors - Pulleyblank and Dörfer - generally deny any connection between the “Hunnic languages” and the Turkic languages. Indeed, even, according to G. Dörfer, in general and in the future “the question of the Huns will remain controversial and difficult.” Meanwhile, it is with the Huns that most modern scientists associate the initial stages of the Turkic glotto- and ethnogenesis. Three published articles give a fairly clear idea of ​​the state of the “Hunnic” problem, as it is presented in the works of European scientists.

I. Benzing (Johannes Benzing, born 1913 [ 1913-2001 ]) - a specialist in the field of Altai languages, which he began to study closely in 1940, for a number of years he occupied the department of Turkic studies at the University of Mainz (Germany). He devoted several works to the description of the Kipchak languages. In the proposed article “Languages ​​of the Huns, Danube and Volga Bulgarians” I. Benzing, denying the existence of a single Hunnic language within the state formations created by the Huns (“This is the same fiction as the “single language of the barbarians” surrounding the Roman Empire”), at the same time time indicates the undoubted existence of proto-Turkic and proto-Mongol tribes in their composition. It is this circumstance that allows him to raise the question of linguistic continuity between some part of the Huns and the Proto-Bulgarian tribes in the Volga region, the North Caucasus and the Danube. Characterizing the language of the Volga Bulgarians, I. Benzing considers it as the direct predecessor of the Chuvash language. It should be added that now as a result latest works Soviet and Hungarian researchers, the source base for the study of the Volga-Bulgarian language was significantly strengthened, and its lexical composition, features of phonetics, morphology and even dialect division were largely clarified.

E.J. Pulleyblank (E.G. Pulleyblank, born 1922 [ 1922- ]) received a Sinological education at the University of Calgary and the University of London, taught Chinese and the history of the Far East in London, Cambridge, and Vancouver. His main interests lie in the field of historical phonetics of the Chinese language and the history of China during the Tang era. The sinological aspect of the consideration of the Hunnic problem is also reflected in his article “The Language of the Xiongnu”, in which the author, based on the reconstruction of Chinese sources preserved in the 1st century. BC - I century AD Hunnic glosses (in Chinese transcription the ethnonym “Hun” sounds like “Hsiungnu”) made an attempt to characterize some features of the phonology and vocabulary of this language. In the course of his research, E. Pulleyblank clearly formulated two conclusions, the degree of evidence of which, however, is different. His first conclusion is negative: the author denies the possibility of classifying the Xiongnu language as an Altai language. The second conclusion is positive: the author admits that the Xiongnu language belongs to the group of so-called Yenisei languages ​​(their most famous descendant is the Ket language), but this conclusion is much weaker substantiated, which is well shown in the published article by G. Dörfer.

G. Doerfer (Gerhard Doerfer, born 1920 [ 1920-2003 ]) - a versatile and original researcher of Altaic languages, working in the field of Mongolian, Turkic (a major event in Turkology was his description of the Khalaj language), as well as Tungus-Manchu languages, occupies the department of Turkology and Altaic studies at the University of Gottingen

university. His work “On the Language of the Huns” is of particular interest, since its author most fully collected and discussed the facts accumulated by science and the results of the study of “Hunnic languages”. The methodological thoroughness of this scientist makes his arguments and conclusions undoubtedly weighty. It should still be noted that the historical connection of the Turks and Uyghurs of Central Asia with the tribal union of the Huns, and the Proto-Bulgarian tribes in South-Eastern Europe with the European Huns, which is not indirectly denied by G. Dörfer himself, cannot in any way be eliminated when discussing hypotheses about ethnic composition of both Hunnic empires.

Considering the large role of early writings in the formation of the foundations of the civilization of the Turkic-speaking peoples of Central Asia, the compilers included two articles in the collection, which examine hypotheses about the origin of the Turkic runic and Uyghur writing, and also characterize the features of their use for almost a thousand years.

J. Clauson (Gerard Clauson, 1891-1974), the largest English Turkologist, successfully summarizes in his article “The Origin of the Turkic Runic Writing” various hypotheses about the origin of the latter. Here, in the most refined form, he expresses the widely spread ideas among specialists about the creation of Turkic runic writing as a one-time act based on the borrowing and adaptation of signs from other writing systems that existed in Central Asia (primarily Sogdian and Greco-Kushan). The article devotes a lot of space to considering the ways in which the Turks adapted alphabets that arose in a different linguistic environment.

A. von Gabain (Annemarie von Gabain, born 1901 [ 1901-1993 ]) - the most prominent representative of German Turkic studies, a student and collaborator of V. Bang, who did a lot for the study of ancient Uyghur monuments, the culture and art of the Central Asian Turkic peoples, the author of one of the first grammars of the ancient Turkic language. In the published article “Culture of Writing and Printing among the Ancient Turks” she describes in detail

describes the features of different writing systems that were used by the ancient Turks, and above all, Sogdo-Aramaic. A. von Gaben dwells in detail on the technical aspects of the practical use of writing in the Turkic environment; she characterizes writing tools, methods of binding and storing manuscripts, principles of their reproduction, the basics of woodcut printing and many other aspects of interest to a wide range of specialists.

The collection also contains two works that reveal the literary creativity of the Turkic peoples in the early stages of their state consolidation. Particularly interesting are the views of foreign Turkologists presented here, containing ideas about the continuity between oral folk art and written literature of the Turks, as well as historical development the latter in the Turkic Khaganate, the Uyghur state and in the states of the Karakhanids and Timurids.

A detailed article by A. Bombaci (Alessio Bombaci, 1914-1979) - this prominent representative of Italian Turkic science, who worked at the University of Rome and the Naples Oriental Institute - is a concise, but extremely rich in material study of the early Turkic poetics and stylistics. He proposed a description of literary genres common in Turkic-language literature of the 11th-17th centuries; The article covers in sufficient detail the connections of Turkic poetic genres with Arabic and Persian ones, and also touches upon the issue of the so-called “pre-Islamic heritage” in medieval Turkic-language literature.

Although in the article by A. f. Gaben “Ancient Turkic Literature” also deals with the early Turkic folk poetic and literary works (epic, song, folklore), the main attention is still paid to the characterization of the literary significance of the first written monuments - the Orkhon-Yenisei, but most of all - the ancient Uyghur, representing many literary genres and styles. It is in this description that the erudition of the scientist, one of the best experts ancient Turkic texts. Extensive knowledge of Sinological knowledge helps the author to discover connections between the originals and their Uyghur translations, to show the creative nature of processing by ancient Turkic translators and authors of famous religious and secular

plots, determine the features of the language and style of various ancient Uyghur texts.

The collection ends with two articles by a famous French Turkologist of the older generation, a student of J. Denis, L. Bazin (born 1920), who studies both modern Oghuz languages ​​- Turkish and Turkmen, and ancient monuments. His articles “Man and the concept of history among the Turks of Central Asia (8th century)” and “The concept of age among the ancient Turks” touch upon very acute historical and cultural problems relating to the awareness of historical time and the systems of its calculation among the Turks of the Kaganate era. Exploring the monuments of the Orkhon-Yenisei runic writing, L. Bazin reveals dating systems for the events contained in these monuments, as well as ways of rethinking and presenting historical facts reflected in texts from Mongolia and the Yenisei. The author manages to trace the dynamics and consistent development of ideas about historical time, which are specific to the Turkic peoples.

This collection is the first experience in summarizing foreign Turkological works on a specific topic. The preparation of several more similar collections has begun, and it is hoped that the responses and suggestions of all interested readers will allow us to better plan the composition of these collections.

S.G. Klyashtorny, D.M. Nasilov

See: Bartold V.V. History of the study of the East in Europe and Russia. - Essays. T. IX. M., 1977, p. 199-484; Kononov A.N. Essay on the history of the study of the Turkish language. L., 1976.

Strahlenberg Ph.J. Das Nord- und Östliche Theil von Europa und Asia... Stockholm, 1730; see also: Novlyanskaya M.G. Philipp Johann Stralenberg. His works on the study of Siberia. M.-L., - 1966; Nasilov D.M. About the Altai linguistic community (to the history of the problem). - In the book: Turkological collection 1974. M., 1978, p. 98-105.

For more details see: Kononov A.N. History of the study of Turkic languages ​​in Russia. Pre-October period. Ed. 2nd. L., 1982.

See Menges K.H. The Turkic Languages ​​and Peoples. An Introduction to Turkic Studies. Wiesbaden, 1968.

See: Kononov A.N. Turkic philology in the USSR. 1917-1967. M., 1968.

See: Baskakov N.A. Introduction to the study of Turkic languages. M., 1962, p. 106-175.

Benzing J. Einführung in das Studium der altaischen Philologie und der Turkologie. Wiesbaden, 1953.

Avest. - Avestan az. - Azerbaijani alt. - Altai Arab. - Arabic Arin. - Arinsky head - Bashkir Bulgarian - Bulgarian Volga-Bolg. - Volga-Bulgarian Goth. - Gothic Greek - Greek Hun. - Hunnic Old Turkic - ancient Turkic Kaz. - Kazakh kar. - Karaite ket. - Ket whale. - Chinese Coybe - Koibalsky cott. - Kottsky kr.-tat. - Crimean Tatar Kypch. - Kipchak lat. - Latin lit. - Lithuanian Mong. - Mongolian New Persian - New Persian Common Turkic - common Turkic oguz. - Oghuz

Osset - Ossetian Osm. - Ottoman Persian. - Persian Late Bolg. - Late Bulgarian pumpok. - Pumpokolsky Early Bolg. - Early Bulgarian Russian - Russian saga - Sagai Serb. - Serbian skr. - Sanskrit Middle-Turkic - Middle Turkic senior-ind. - King's Indian suvar. - Suvarsky tat. - Tatar Tib. - Tibetan Tungus. - Tunguska Tuv. - Tuvan tour. - Turkish Turk. - Turkmen Uyg. - Uyghur hack. - Khakassian chag. - Chagatai Czech - Czech Chuv. - Chuvash yak. - Yakut

Bibliographic abbreviations and abbreviations of sources.

DTS - Ancient Turkic Dictionary. L., 1969.

IAN - News of the Imperial Academy of Sciences. St. Petersburg

IOAIEK - Society of Archeology, History and Ethnography at Kazan University.

MIA - Materials and research on the archeology of the USSR. M.

NAA - Peoples of Asia and Africa.

TS - Turkological collection. M.

EV - Epigraphy of the East. L.

AAN - Acta antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae. Budapest.

ABAW - Abhandlungen der (Berliner, d.h.) Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.

ADAW - Abhandlungen der (Berliner, d.h.) Deutschen Akademie der Wissenschaften.

AfV - Archiv für Volkerkunde. Wien.

ALH - Acta linguistica Hungarica. Budapest.

AM - Asia Major. L.

AOH - Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae. Budapest.

AOr - Archiv Orientalni. Praha.

B.-IJBS - Byzantion. International Journal of Byzantine Studies. N.Y.

BSOAS - Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London.

CAJ - Central Asian Journal. The Hague-Wiesbaden.

EI - Enzyklopädie des Islam. 1-4. Leiden-Lpz. (P., L.), (1908), 1913-1934.

EI 2 - The Encyclopaedia of Islam. New ed. Vol. 1 - ... Leiden - L., 1960-...

FUF - Finnish-ugrische Forschungen, Helsinki.

Cibb, H.O.P. - E. J. Gibb, A History of Ottoman Poetry. L., 1900.

HJAS - Harvard Journal of Asian Studies Cambridge. Mass.

JA - Journal Asiatique, P.

JAOS - Journal of the American Oriental Society, Chicago.

JRAS - Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society Great Britain and Ireland. L.

JSFOu - Journal de la Société Finno-ougrienne, Helsinki.

KCsA - Körösi Csoma-Archivum. Budapest.-Lpz.

KSz - Keleti Szemle (Revue orientale), Budapest.

M I-III - A. von Le Coq, Türkische Manichaica aus Chotscho I-III - ABAW, Anhang, 1911, B., 1912; 1919, N3; 1922, N2.

MSFOu - Mémoires de la Société Finno-ougrienne, Helsinki.

MSOS - Mutteilungen des Seminares für Orientalischen Sprachen. B.

PhTP - Philologiae Turcicae Fundamenta, Wiesbaden, Bd I, 1959; Bd II, 1964.

RO - Rożnie Orientalistycny. Lwów (Kraków), Warszawa.

SBAW - Sitzungsberichte der (Berliner, d.h.) Preussischer Akademie der Wissenschaften.

TD - “Türk dili”, Ankara, İstanbul.

TDAY - “Türk dili araştırmaları yılliğı. Belleten", Ankara.

TDED - “Türk dili ve edebiyati.” Ankara.

TM - “Türkiyat mecmuası”, İstanbul.

T'P - T'oung Pao, ou Archive consernant l'histoire, les langues, la géographie, 1'etnographie et les arts de l'Asie Orientale. Paris - Leiden.

TT I-V - W.Bang und A. von Gabain, Türkische Turfan-Texte I, II u.s.w. - SBAW, 1929, N15; 22; 1930, N13.

TT VI - W.Bang - A. von Gabain - G.R. Rahmeti. Türkische TurfanTexte VI: Säkiz yükmäk. - SBAW. 1934.

TT VII - Arat. Türkische Turfan-Texte VII. - ABAW. 1937.

TT VIII - A.von Gabain. Türkische Turfan-Texte. VIII. - ABAW, 1952, N7. B., 1954.

TT IX - A.von Gabain, W. Winter. Türkische Turfan-Texte IX. - ADAW, 1956, H2, B., 1958.

TT I - T. Kowalski, ed A. von Gabain. Türkische Turfan-Texte X. - ADAW. 1958, N1, B., 1959.

U I-III - F.W.K. Müller. Uigurica I-III. - ABAW. 1908, K 2; 1910, N3; 1920, N2.

UAJ(B) - Ural-altaische Jahrbücher. Wiesbaden.

UJ(B) - Ungarische Jahrbücher, B.

WZKM - Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes.

ZDMG - Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft, Lpz.

ZfslPh - Zeitschrift für slavische Philologie.

Bibliographic information.

1. I. Benzing. Languages ​​of the Huns, Danube and Volga Bulgarians: Johannes Benzing. Das Hunnische, Donaubolgarische und Wolgabolgarische (Sprachreste). - PhTF. T. 1, 1959, p. 685-695.

2. G. Dörfer. About the language of the Huns: Gerhardt Doerfer. Zur Sprache der Hunnen. - C.A.J. Vol. XVII, 1973, N1, p. 1-50.

3. E.J. Pullyblank. Xiongnu language: E.G. Pulleyblank. The Hsiung-nu Language. - AM. New series. Vol. IX, 1962, pt. 2, p. 239-265.

4. A. von Gaben. The culture of writing and printing among the ancient Turks: Annemari von Gabain. Alttürkische Schreibekultur und Druckerei. - PhTF. T. II, 1964, p. 171-191.

5. J. Clauson. Origin of the Turkic runic alphabet: Gerard Clauson. The origin of the Turkish “runic” alfabet. - "Acta Orientalia". T. XXXII. Copenhagen, 1970, p. 51-76.

6. A. Bombachi. Turkic literatures. Introduction to history and style: Alessio Bombasi. The Turkish literatures. Introductory notes on the history and style. - PhTF. T. II, 1964, p. XI-LXX.

The place of Turkic literature in world culture.
Turkic-speaking.
Author: Vagif Sultanli
Doctor of Philological Sciences, Professor
The Turkic peoples gave humanity many great personalities, including many writers and poets. Unfortunately, this contribution to world literature, as well as to other areas of culture, remains not appreciated, and in part is openly belittled. The famous French orientalist Albert Sorel wrote at the beginning of the 20th century that two things remain undiscovered on Earth: in geography these are the poles, and in history – the Turks. The poles, as we know, have been open for a long time and have almost been turned into tourist routes, but the situation around the Turks, we must admit, has changed little. The reason for this is more that Turkology developed almost entirely in Europe and Russia, and some Turkologists definitely sinned against scientific truth for the sake of political expediency.

History knows many Turkic empires and other large state formations, and all of them were characterized by loyalty towards the conquered peoples, the virtual absence of colonial policy in its generally accepted understanding. The creation of vast Turkic empires was essentially not accompanied by the spread of the Turkic language and culture. Due to this circumstance, for example, today the Turkish language, unlike the languages ​​of other former colonial empires, still has a local distribution area, which, paradoxically, does not even completely cover the territory of the Turkish Republic.

The Xiongnu campaign in Europe in the 3rd century BC. contributed to the development of the art of singer-storytellers in this region, and oral Turkic epic literature had a strong impact on the culture of European peoples. Scandinavian sagas "Greater Edda" and "Little Edda", Germanic epic“The Song of the Nibelungs”, the French lyrical tale “Tristan and Isolde” are very interesting precisely as a product of Turkic oral creativity.

Turkish literary critic Mehmet Fuat Koprulu wrote: “The Russian scholar Potanin studied the Turkic and Mongol epics under the name “North Asian epic” as a single whole and in his various works, especially in a significant monograph published in 1899 “ Oriental themes in the medieval European epic" compared them with individual European legends, making an attempt to prove their belonging to West Asian and to the European peoples, even the Judeo-Christian Scriptures. It follows that the original epic motifs in the old folk literature of the Slavs and Finns, Germans, and French go back to the Turko-Mongols; Thus, the role of laying the foundations of the epic folk literature created by the Central Asian peoples belongs to the “Xiongnu” of Attila. Indeed, the influence of Attila and the Xiongnu on medieval European epic literature is so great that some historians of German literature compare his role in the Hermann epic with the role of Agamemnon in the Greek epic. Russian national epic "Igor's Campaign" ("The Tale of Igor's Campaign"), relating to XII century, is entirely dedicated to the battles between the Russians and the Kipchak Turks. The importance of the Turkic component in this legend, which is also expressed in the presence of many Turkic words, is completely obvious. Similar works of the peoples of South-Eastern Europe - Serbs, Greeks, etc. also bear the stamp of strong Turkish influence. Everything that has been said is quite enough to conclude about the almost universal significance of the Turkic epic.”

Of course, the influence of the Turks on world culture is not limited only to storytelling, but also extends to written literature. Thus, the influence of the famous epic “Alp er Tonga” (“Afrasiab”), reflecting many features of the Iranian-Turanian wars, is clearly felt in the “Shahname” of the great Firdovsi. Subsequently, ancient Turkic stone inscriptions were discovered, which became the object of research and as an original form of literature.

The famous Hungarian scientist Laszlo Rasonyi wrote in his book “Turks in History”: “In 1878, Regel’s expedition first drew attention to the ruins of cities in the Taklamakan Desert. In 1890, the English officer Bover bought manuscripts found among the ruins near the city of Kucha and dating back to the 4th century. Soon the attention of the whole world was attracted here. Thanks to Gedin's geographical research, the Russian expeditions of Kozlov, Roborovsky and Oldenburg, the English expeditions of Aurel Stein (1900-1901, 1906-1908, 1913-1916), the Japanese expeditions of Otanif, the French expeditions of Pelliot (1906-1909), and the German expeditions of Grunveld (1902) were organized. -1903, 1905-1907) and Le Coq (1904-1906, 1913-1914), whose finds filled museums around the world. These finds include frescoes, inscriptions and figurines in the Berlin Museum of Art. Thanks to these works and other sources, we are able to imagine Uyghur culture today.”

With the advent of Islam, Turkish culture acquired new content and character. Many Turkic-speaking authors began to write in Arabic and Farsi, making a great contribution to the development of classical oriental literature. The literary views of Khatib Tabrizi (1030-1109), the author of commentaries on the works of Arab authors, brought a fresh spirit to Eastern aesthetics, becoming the subject of attention in distant Europe. Nasireddin Tusi (1201-1274), with his works in Farsi, gave impetus to the development of the theory of poetics for a long time. The great Azerbaijani poet Nizami Ganjavi (1141-1209) opened new page in the history of world poetry, under his influence, dozens of works of the same name were later created in the East, the most significant of which came from the pen of Amir Khosrow Dehlavi, Abdurrahman Jami and Alishir Navoi. In addition, Johann Wolfgang Goethe, who was also influenced by Eastern culture, talks about Nizami in his “East-West Divan”, and in the poems of G. Boccacio “Ameto”, K. Gotsi and F. Schiller - “Princess Turandot” the influence of Nizami’s poem is undeniable "Seven Beauties"

The works and legendary personality of one of the brilliant representatives of Turkic-Azerbaijani poetry, Imadeddin Nasimi, have long attracted keen interest in both the East and the West, becoming the subject of numerous studies. The work of the great Uzbek-Chagatai poet Alishir Navoi (1441-1501) occupied literary thought in the East for a long time and clearly demonstrated the inexhaustible richness of this language; his work “Collection of Perfections” caused many imitations throughout the East.

The rich heritage of the luminary of Turkic poetry Muhammad Fuzuli (1494-1556) has had a tremendous influence on the poetic art of the East for more than 5 centuries. The English scientist Gibb called him “the poet of the heart” and “the sun that rose in the East.”

The dramatic creativity and reforms in literature and culture in general of the outstanding Azerbaijani thinker Mirza Fatali Akhundov (1812-1878), nicknamed the “Azerbaijani Moliere,” aroused keen interest in Europe; Beginning in the 1880s, famous French orientalists Barbier de Meinard, Stanislav Guiard, Alphonse Sillier, Lucien Bouvat, Louis Bazin and others presented his individual works, and then his collected works, to the readers of their country.

An outstanding Azerbaijani scientist of the 19th century, the founder of the Russian school of oriental studies, Mirza Kazimbey (Kazembey), who became famous for his studies of oriental culture, during his lifetime became a full and honorary member of the academies of Russia, Great Britain, Denmark, France, the USA, etc. Kazembek’s works later played an important role in the study East.

The works of the Azerbaijani poet Mirza Shafi Vazekh were translated by the German poet and orientalist Friedrich Bodenstedt under the titles “Songs of Mirza Shafi” (1851) and “From the Legacy of Mirza Shafi” (1881), widely spreading throughout Europe, and were reprinted a total of more than 150 times. However, seeing their popularity, Bodenstedt began publishing them under his signature, making minor changes.

The achievements of the outstanding Turkish poet of the 20th century Nazim Hikmet in the field of free versification increased attention to Turkish poetry throughout the world. The poems of N. Hikmet, who had the privilege of spending a significant part of his life in the Soviet Union, have been translated into many European languages. In addition, the works of prominent representatives of Turkish prose and poetry Aziz Nesin, Yasar Kemal, Reshat Nuri, Orhan Kemal and others have gained wide popularity. Note that the recent awarding of the Turkish fiction writer Orhan Pamuk Nobel Prize in the field of literature was evidence of the recognition of Turkish literature throughout the world.

Dedicated to the events of the period of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic (1918-1920), the novel “Ali and Nino” signed by Gurban Said, whose authorship is still debatable (according to the prevailing point of view, the author of the novel is the Azerbaijani writer Muhammad Assad), has been translated into all leading languages ​​of the world and remains one of the world's bestsellers to this day.

If we turn briefly to Central Asian literature, it should be noted poetic creativity and journalistic activities of a prominent representative Kazakh literature Olzhas Suleimenov, author of the sensational book “Az and I” that caused a sharp resonance. And of course, the wonderful Kyrgyz writer Chingiz Aitmatov, whose stories and novels, dedicated to the most pressing moral and social issues of our time, have been translated into all major languages ​​of the world, and some of them are among the most widely read literary works.

Literature

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2.Aus dem Nachlasse Mirza Shaffus. Berlin, 1881.

3.Bammat Heydər. Qərb mədəniyyətinin inkişafında müsəlmanların rolu. Baku, 1994.

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7. Die Lieder des Mirza Schaffus. Berlin, 1851.

8.Fridrix Bodenstedt. Mirzə Şəfi haqqında xatirələr (“Şərqdə min bir gün” kitabından). Baku, 1987.

9. Güngör Erol. Tarihte Türkler. Istanbul, 1989.

10. Kabaklı Ahmet. Türk Edebiyyatı, II c. Istanbul, 1994.

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13. Laszlo Rasonyi. Tarihte türkler (II ğaskı), Ankara, Türk Kültürünü Araştırma Enstitüsü, 1988.

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15. Russian and European press about Mirza Fatali Akhundov. Comp. S. Tagizade. Baku, 1987

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Turkic-speaking, Turks, Turkic-speaking, Turkic-speaking peoples, history of the Turks, Turkic peoples, Turkestan, Central Asia, Turkic-speaking countries, Tatarstan, Kazan, Ufa, Bashkiria, history of the Turks, Tatars, Uzbekistan, tourism, Tashkent, Bukhara, Khiva, ethnography, Turkic-language library , Turkic literature

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1 LITERATURE AND FOLKLORE OF THE ANCIENT TURKICS OF CENTRAL ASIA Anikeeva Tatyana Aleksandrovna Ph.D. Philol. Sciences, Researcher, Department of Oriental History, Institute of Oriental Studies, Russian Academy of Sciences One of the important sources on the history of nomadic societies, what the Turks (in particular, the Oghuz Turks) were during the period of their advancement to the West, is oral folklore , usually epic, which through language and content reflects both historical realities and a complex of mythological views. Various tribes that lived in antiquity and the early Middle Ages in the vast expanses of Central and Middle Asia either formed into large, strong tribal associations, then disintegrated again. Therefore, the literary monuments of this time can be considered as the common heritage of the Turkic-speaking peoples. Some researchers date the origin of the literary process among the Turks to the 8th century. (at the earliest to the middle of the 6th century, that is, the time of the existence of the Turkic Kaganate, the middle of the 6th to the middle of the 8th century). The concept of “ancient Turkic literature” is largely literary, since it not only shows the connection with the cultural life of the Turkic state, but also denotes the time of formation and consolidation of certain historical, cultural and stylistic phenomena, which later received their development and significance specifically for this literature. One of the main problems in the study of the ancient and medieval Turkic literary tradition is the degree of correlation between oral and book elements in it. The interaction between folk text and literature is a constant process and demonstrates several paths of mutual transition. Thus, often the folklore tradition begins to mimic in a certain way, to adapt to literature. This happens at the phonetic, compositional, and genre levels. For example, individual songs of the oral Kalmyk "Dzhangar", which are performed as part of an epic cycle, are called "chapter" (buleg), a word from the arsenal of book literature; in Kalmykia, Western Mongolia, Xinjiang, and the South Altai Oirats, there are proverbs and beliefs about the existence of a multi-volume book “Dzhangar”, “which have never been confirmed by anything, but reflect ideas about the “ideal text”, necessarily written and standing hierarchically higher than the oral tradition” . By the beginning of the 7th century. The Turkic Khaganate broke up into two independent associations: the Eastern Turkic and Western Turkic Khaganates (the process of disintegration took place from 583 to 602). The first works of ancient Turkic literature, which are considered runic monuments, appeared in the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. There are two main groups of monuments: the Orkhon texts (in Northern Mongolia in the Orkhon, Selenga and Tola river basins) and the Yenisei texts (discovered in the Yenisei valley). The Orkhon group of texts consists of the Small and Large inscriptions in honor of Kul-tegin, inscriptions in honor of Bilge Kagan, in honor of Tonyukuk, as well as the Ongin inscription. The Yenisei group of texts includes a number of smaller inscriptions on tombstones. The texts of the monuments contain calls and appeals to the rulers (beks) and the people to contribute to the rise of the Turkic kagans. The authors of Orkhon works depict the images of the supreme ruler Kagan, the “wise adviser” Tonyukuk and the heroic commander Kul-tegin as examples of virtue corresponding to the time. The image of the kagan includes the divine principle (“sky-like, unborn,” “my mother is khatun, similar to [the goddess] Umay”) and at the same time is endowed with the best human traits. The Yenisei runic inscriptions provide examples of Turkic-language epitaph lyrics written on behalf of the deceased. The most extensive of them, such as the inscription from Begre, Altynkel and Elegest, are constructed in the form of a biographical narrative, telling about some of the main events in the life of the buried person. This emphasizes their similarity to certain parts Orkhon inscriptions, but in the Yenisei epitaphs the life story of the deceased plays minor role and is subordinated to the main goal of conveying the regret of the deceased for those with whom he “did not enjoy” and from whom he “separated” (that is, died), a formula that is necessarily present in all Yenisei epitaphs. The intonation of the Yenisei epitaphs is filled with deep sorrow: “With you, in the mansion, my wives, oh woe! with you, my own

2 sons, I was separated!..” “I stopped feeling the sun and moon in the blue sky! From my land, oh woe! I separated from you! My khan, my el (tribal union), oh woe! I didn't enjoy it! From my ale, oh woe! I separated" (Inscription from Elegest). The runic texts contain repetitions that stand out as similar components of the descriptions: depiction of the history of the Kek Turk people (that is, the Tugyu Turks) from the 6th to the 8th centuries, the main motives of the description: the need to follow the precepts ancestors; the need for military campaigns; the favorable outcome of campaigns; depiction of various kagans. Motives: the help of the gods in the election of the kagan (or the divine origin of the kagan himself); his concern for the well-being of the entire Turkic people; depiction of battles with the participation of Kul-tegin and the same type of image. military campaigns with the participation of Tonyukuk. There is an opinion that the texts of the inscriptions in honor of Kül-tegin and Bilge Kagan may represent a literary adaptation of oral tales that develop around epic heroes: evidence of this can be the presence and certain repetition of stylistic formulas and cliches. in the texts of monuments, characteristic of the heroic epic. For example, 1. a formula describing the welfare of the people: I made the poor (poor) people rich. I made the small people numerous. (poor) people he made rich He made the few people numerous (Bilge Kagan about Kagan Kapagan, his uncle) 2. military activity (also the same stylistic formulas): They forced those who had heads to bow (heads) They forced those who had knees to bend (knees) Bashlylyg jukunturmis, tizligig sokurmis (The first story of the Great Inscription in honor of Kül-tegin, also in the third story about Ilterishkagan, the father of Bilge Kagan, in the same inscription). Compare with the following: Those who had a state, he deprived of the state. Those who had a kagan, he deprived of the kagan (also repeated several times in the inscription) 1. Stylistic formula, which is a stable comparison (the troops of the kagan are compared with fire and rain, that is, with the elements): The army of the Turgesh kagan came like fire (and) rain (storm) We fought at Bolchu (Inscription in honor of Bilge Kagan) On the second day they came, Flaming like fire, they came. We fought Akinti kün kalti, ortca qyzyp kalti (39 40, Inscription in honor of Tonyukuk) The comparison of an army with a downpour, with flowing water is extremely consistent throughout the development of Turkic literature in various traditions. So, in “Kitab-i Dedem Korkut” (XV century), in response to Salor-Kazan’s request to interpret the dream, his brother Kara-Gyune replies: “You are talking about black, this is your happiness; you talk about snow and rain, this is your army; hair care, blood black (disaster); I can’t interpret the rest, let Allah interpret “” (The story of how Salor-Kazan’s house was plundered; italics mine. T.A.). Connection

3 water and blood, which finds expression in various figures of speech (metaphor, hyperbole), apparently is quite stable in Turkic literature: “Let him cross the rivers stained with blood” // Kanlu kanlu sulardan ge ç it versün; monument to Kul-Tegin: “Your blood ran like water” // Qany ŋ sub č a J ü g ü rti). In a monument dating back to a later period, “Oguz-name,” it says when describing the battle: “The fights and battles were so fierce that the waters of the Itil River became red-red, like cinnabar” (Oguz-name 19, III V) . The connection with oral epic storytelling is also emphasized by the formula for the transition from one action (or episode) to another (see the inscription in honor of Tonyukuk): “After I heard those words,” “Hearing those words,” “Hearing those words, I moved the army." Tonyukuk's receipt of new news about the plans of the enemies and the next council with the bek serve as the reason for the further development of the narrative. For example: “Hearing those words, my sleep did not come at night, and during the day I had no peace” (Ol sabyγ äsidip, tün udusyqym kälmädi, küntüz olursyqym kälmädi), “Hearing this word of his” (Ol sabyn äsidip). It is characteristic that the authors of the texts of the inscriptions seem to be addressing the listeners, which, according to I.V. Stebleva, may indicate the oral tradition of performing folklore works that existed at that time: Listen to my speech to the end (in full) (Listen to my speech in full (you)): Sabymyn tukati äsidgil Is there a lie in these words of mine? Beks (and) people of the Turks, listen to this! Azu bu sabymda igid bargu? Tuk baglar budun, buny äsidin! (Small inscription in honor of Kül-tegin) The formulas for changing episodes, the narrator’s addresses to the listeners are the most stable not only in the Turkic folklore tradition (they are preserved even in its most recent genres, for example, in the Turkish urban story), but also universal for most folklore ballads and oral epic Balkans, Hungary, England and Spain. Signs of oral epic existence of the text also include the use of constant epithets in all inscriptions (“ blue sky"(kök täңрi), "brown earth" (jagyz jir), "seeing eyes", "red blood" (qyzyl qan(ym)), "black sweat" (qara tär), "yellow gold" (saryγ altun), "light silver" (örüŋ kümüs), "sky-like kagan", which performs the same functions as permanent epithet in folklore works: it expresses the typical, ideal characteristics of objects, as well as the idea of ​​“epic” time: When the blue sky was created above and the brown (dark) earth below, between them both the sons of men were created (then there are people). My ancestors Bumyn-Kagan and Istemi-Kaganozä kök tänri asra jagyz jir kylyntukda, äkin ara kisi ogly kylynmys sat over the sons of men. Kisi oglint ÿzä ächÿm apam Bumyn kagan Istämi kagan olurmysh (Large inscription in honor of Kül-tegin) Proverbs and sayings in Orkhon texts: Not seen by the eye, not heard by the ear (Inscription in honor of Bilge Kagan) Inside without food, outside without clothes (Large inscription in honor of Kul-tegin) Time (fates, dates) is distributed by Heaven (God) Human sons were born to die öd tanry jasar, kisi ogly kop ölgali törÿmis (Large inscription in honor of Kul-tegin) In the works of researchers dedicated to the Orkhon monuments, there is no consensus on their genre attribution. According to A. von Gaben, ancient Turkic inscriptions (epitaphs) “are a rich historical source for us, although they were not created for this purpose... The wealth of material they contain allows us to conclude that the inscriptions were something of a state archive". Turkologist A. Bombachi (1964) saw in them “a mixture of the genres of historical narrative, political rhetoric and epic,” with the latter predominating. But already in his monograph of 1968, he defines these inscriptions exclusively as a monument of ancient Turkic historiography, omitting them stylistic features. I.V. Kormushin writes: “The desire to convince at all costs those to whom the inscription is naturally addressed led to the need to influence not only the mind, but also the feelings of the reader. This attitude was realized in a special emotional structure of the text, saturated with metaphors, hyperboles, comparisons and other paths." Genre of inscriptions by I.V. Kormushin

4 is defined as “the combination of historiographical narratives with ethico-political proclamations.” A.N. Kononov saw in ancient Turkic inscriptions only “brilliant historical chronicles"The attribution of the character of an exclusively epic folklore work to the Orkhon inscriptions was given, first of all, by the stylistic proximity of some of the literary techniques used in these monuments to the narrative forms common to the epics of Turkic-speaking peoples. Folklorist S.A. Surazakov, having compared the stylistic features of the Orkhon inscriptions and some Altai heroic tales , showed that there are similarities between them, but it is impossible to talk about complete identity. In his opinion, the inscriptions themselves “tell about actual events and persons and in this sense represent a historical document. This criterion is a story about.” real events and historical figures is an important difference from folklorized narratives. According to S.G. Klyashtorny, “although the entire pathos of the narrative, the plan of presentation of the Orkhon monuments is aimed at the deeds and people, the thoughts of “today,” the authors of the inscriptions could not completely ignore the folklore and mythological motifs inherent in the picture of the world of those to whom they addressed.” Be that as it may, the stylistic stereotypes inherent in the inscriptions cannot be direct and unconditional arguments showing the existence of the ancient Turkic epic; such an argument could only be a direct fixation of an indisputable epic plot in a runic monument. It is also necessary to mention texts from Turfan in the ancient Uighur language, which were discovered in East Turkestan. To one degree or another, most of these texts are influenced by the Buddhist tradition (Buddhism was widespread in this area of ​​Central Asia): these are religious hymns, fortune-telling texts, calendars, astronomical calculations (about the movement of planets and constellations); texts created under the influence of Islam were partially published in the edition of R. Arat. Uyghur texts from Turfan were translated, published and studied primarily by G.R. Rahmati, A. von Lecoq, V. Bang, R.R. Arat and A. von Gaben. Despite the fact that these texts cannot be fully attributed to folklore, their very form dates back to the ancients folklore traditions, since the creators of the texts borrowed from folk art not only the techniques of versification, but also the system of images. Uyghur texts with Muslim content are more closely related to the works of Ahmed Yugnek and Yusuf Balasagunsky. "Kutadgu Bilik" ("Blessed Knowledge") is a didactic poem written by Yusuf Balasagunsky in 1068. During this period, from the 11th to the 14th centuries, according to S.E. Malov, “the entire appearance of the language (Uyghur. T.A.) is changing, not only its alphabet and content (now Muslim). The book language is increasingly experiencing Western influence throughout Central Asia, and is gradually moving from the Uyghur period to Chagatai "(which later became the basis of the Uzbek language). The Karakhanid era has long been considered a “dark age” in Central Asian historiography. Although the name of the era by dynasty was introduced early, only V.V. Bartold, who studied all the limited information from Muslim authors about the Karakhanids, revealed some trends in the development of the Karakhanid state. The Karakhanids inherited the Western Turkic Khaganate and restored the system that had developed back in the 6th century. The background of the emergence of the Karakhanids is closely connected with the Turkic tribe of Karluks, the Yabgu (tribal leaders) of which separated from the Uyghur Kaganate because of their desire to pursue an independent policy. In the second half of the 8th century. The Uighurs and the Tang Empire fought the Tibetans for western Central Asia. The Karluks took the side of the Tibetans, but used the situation to their advantage, as a result, in 766, all of Semirechye (including Taraz) went to them. they captured Kashgaria. To the west, the Karluks extended their influence to the cities of the Middle Syr Darya and captured part of Fergana. In 840, the Uyghur Khaganate fell. Power in the Karakhanid Kaganate was divided between the nobility of two Karluk tribes: the Chigils and the Yagmas. Outwardly, this was expressed in the division of the empire into two parts: eastern and western, led by their kagan. In the 10th century expansion was started and carried out in two directions towards Khotan and towards Transoxiana, as a result, the border of the Karakhanid Kaganate passed along the river. Amu Darya. Already at the end of the 30s. XI century The Karakhanids of Maverannahr separated from the Karakhanids of Kashgar, and after a hundred and fifty years the last Karakhanid princes left the historical arena. In 1210

5 the Eastern Karakhanid dynasty was ended. In 1212, in Samarkand, the Khorezm Shah Muhammad executed the last representative of the Western Karakhanid dynasty. In in Kashgar, the didactic poem “Kutadgu Bilig” (“The Science of How to Be Happy,” or, more precisely, “Blessed Knowledge”) by Yusuf, originally from Balasagun, appeared. No biographical information about the author has been preserved. "Kutadgu Bilig" is the most ancient Uyghur dated monument of Muslim content. The poem was dedicated to the ruler of Kashgar, Bogra Khan, who awarded the author the honorary rank of khas-hajib (personal chamberlain). "Kutadgu Bilig" over beits. It was quite popular; it was called “Ethics of Government”, “Sovereign Laws”, “Adornment of Nobles”, “Advice to Kings”, even “Turkic Shah-Nama”. Yusuf Balasagunsky's treatise covers all aspects of the life of an ideal ruler and his officials. The teachings are accompanied by information from the most different areas sciences: mathematics, astronomy, medicine. Legendary Iranian kings and heroes are cited as necessary role models. The Muslim orientation of the first work in classical Turkic poetry is natural. Being devout Muslims, the Karakhanids could approve such a work, which would present ideas useful for the Turkic dynasty, which acted as the ruler of Transoxiana. At the same time, just such a work could have been created by an author whose erudition leaves no doubt that he was well acquainted with the literature of the Arabs and Persians, which he took as a model. Introductory part“Kutadgu Bilig” contains an introduction obligatory for the mesnevi genre, which includes the glorification of God and the Prophet Muhammad, a dedication to the ruler, and where the meaning of the book and the reasons for its writing are reported. A distinctive feature of the composition “Kutadgu Bilig” is the inclusion in the mesnevi of more than 200 quatrains of the rubai type, and its final chapters are written in the form of qasidas. Thus, the first work in the history of Turkic-language classical poetry included several genres of Arabic and Persian poetry, which later became complete and separate literary genres among the Turks. It is generally accepted that the history of classical Turkic poetry begins with the poem “Kutadgu Bilig”. Among other monuments of Turkic-language literature of this period, one can name Ahmed Yugnek’s poem “The Gift of Truths” (Khibat al-hakaiq), which dates back approximately to the 11th-12th centuries. (and possibly at an earlier time), as well as “Oguz-name” (“The Legend of Oguz Khan”), which is a written text of the legend about the origin of the Oghuzs. This text dates back to the existence of the Oghuz state on the Syr Darya, that is, to the period of the 8th century. Among the most important literary and folklore Turkic texts, along with the Orkhon monuments of runic writing, the “Legend of Oguz Khan” (“Oguz-name”), one can name the tales of the only book epic among the Oghuz Turks “Kitab-i dedem Korkut” (“Book my grandfather Korkut"). At the end of the 8th century. The Oghuz, a union of Turkic tribes, lived in the lower reaches of the Syr Darya and on the coast of the Aral Sea, gradually moving there from Southern Siberia and moving further west all the way to the Caspian Sea. As many medieval Arab historians emphasize, the Oghuz were not homogeneous in their composition and language. Already in Central Asia nomadic tribes Oguzes mixed with other Turkic tribes and Iranian-speaking peoples. In the west they fought wars with the Khazars and Volga Bulgars. In the 10th century The power of the Oguzes increased, their nomads covered significant territories in Northern Turkmenistan and Southwestern Kazakhstan, which were appropriately called “Guz steppes” (Persian desht-i guzan). It was at this time, as a result of discord between various tribes that were part of the union of Oguz tribes, that a group led by Seljuk, who converted to Islam, strengthened. These Oghuz tribes began their advance westward through Transcaucasia, Iran and Asia Minor in the first half of the 11th century. and made a major contribution to the ethnogenesis of modern Turks and Azerbaijanis. Another part of the Oguz tribes remained in Central Asia in the Aral Sea region and subsequently served as the ethnic substrate of the Turkmens and, to some extent, the Uzbeks. Around the same time, researchers attribute the composition and cyclization of some legends, which later became part of the “Book of my grandfather Korkut,” as indirectly evidenced by the “age of Korkut,” the legendary time mentioned in the epic, corresponding to the 9th-10th centuries. A comparison of the epic text “Kitab-i Dedem Korkut” with other examples of Turkic literature, in particular, with ancient Turkic monuments, is quite justified: “Comparison of ancient Turkic poems with the heroic epics of the Turkic peoples allows us to trace the evolution of poetic forms, as well as their natural transformation. If in Khakass , Tuvan and

While in Yakut folklore the phenomena of ancient Turkic verse we discovered received their ultimate expression, in the Kyrgyz epic Manas the same phenomena were modified under the influence of Arab-Persian literature. This influence was strongest in the Central Asian epics Alpamysh and Korogly. However, they also reveal a certain connection with ancient Turkic poetry." Also, I.V. Stebleva wrote that "the closest to the poems of the era of runic verse are, perhaps, the poetic texts from "Kitab-i Dedem Korkut", which have come down to us in the literary processing of the 15th century, and not a later edition." Despite the fact that the tales about the exploits of the Oguz heroes were written down, in the "Book of my grandfather Korkut" expressions are ubiquitous, which, being essentially the appeals of the Ozan storyteller to his audience, directly indicate on the once purely oral nature of the existence of the epic: G ö rel ü m Hanum ne soylad ı ("Let's see, my khan, what he said" or: "Let's listen to what he told") With a high degree of probability, it can be argued that this is in the text. The monument contains fragments dating back to the ancient oral Turkic tradition. Such fragments include, first of all, proverbs and sayings often found in the epic: “The horse’s leg is lame, the singer’s tongue is agile,” “He who has ribs rises, he who has cartilage.” , he grows up" (X, Song of Sekrek, son of Ushun-Koji) "A horseman alone in the field will not become a knight; the bottom of an empty vessel will not become strong" (IX, Song of Amran, son of Bekil). Despite the fact that the question of the folkloric nature of the Turkic runic monuments remains controversial, the continuity of a number literary forms, existing in ancient Turkic monuments, in Turkic literature and folklore of later times, is difficult to deny. Notes Stebleva I.V. Life and literature of pre-Islamic Turks. M., Ibid. Neklyudov S.Yu. Traditions of oral and book culture: correlation and typology // Slavic etudes. Collection for the anniversary of S.M. Tolstoy. M., S Ibid. The book of my grandfather Korkut. Oghuz heroic epic. Per. acad. V.V. Bartold. Ed. prepared by V.M. Zhirmunsky, A.N. Kononov. M.; L., 1962 (series Literary monuments). See: Malov S.E. Monuments of ancient Turkic writing. M.; L., 1951; Orkun H. M. Eski Türk yazıtları. Ankara, Shcherbak A.M. (translation and commentary). Oguz-name. Muhabbat-name. Monuments of ancient Uyghur and old Uzbek writing. M., See, for example, in the cycle of Turkish epic tales about Ker-oglu: “Who will we talk about now?” Haberi nerden verek? Gel haberi nerden verek? "Let me tell a story about Ker-oglu." Gel haberi Köroğlu"ndan verelim. Başgöz I. The Tale-Singer and His Audience // Turkish Folklore and Oral Literature. Selected Essays of Ilhan Başgöz. Bloomington: Indiana University, P Klyashtorny S.G. Epic stories in ancient Turkic runic monuments // Klyashtorny S.G. Monuments of ancient Turkic writing and ethnocultural history of Central Asia. SPb., With Bombaci A. Histoire de la littérature turque. P., Klyashtorny S.G. Decree. Op. Right there. In general, ancient Uyghur monuments are usually divided into Manichaean, Muslim and Buddhist, according to their content; Tugusheva L.Yu. Poetic monuments of the ancient Uyghurs // Turkological collection M., P.237. Arat R. R. Eski Türk şiiri. Ankara: TTK basımevi, Tugusheva L.Yu. Decree. Op. P.237. Malov S.E. Decree. Op. P.220. Stebleva I.V. Poetry of the Turks VI-VIII centuries. M., S Ibid.

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Patriotic War 1812 on the pages works of art"The twelfth year is folk epic, the memory of which will pass on to centuries and will not die as long as the Russian people live” M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin

KABYLOVA A.S. [email protected] IDEALS OF HIGH VALUES: AL-FARABI AND YUSUF BALASAGUNI The influence of al-Farabi (870-950) affected the progress of human knowledge over many centuries. He's forever

EXPLANATORY NOTE The humanization of modern education required not only the convergence of school teaching of the Russian language and literature and the strengthening of their practical orientation, but also the emergence of new

Section 3. HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES Topic 3.1. Christian Europe and the Islamic world in the Middle Ages Lecture 3.1.2. The emergence of Islam. Arab conquests. Features of the development of the Byzantine Empire. Plan 1.

Work program on history Explanatory note The work program is compiled on the basis of the Model program of basic general education in the history of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation 2004, (E. V. Agibalova, G. M. Donskoy), under

This small topic is being published due to the fact that we have no work this week. Essay-description of Vasnetsov’s painting “Bogatyrs” Contemporaries about the painting. To the left of Ilya Muromets, on a white horse, menacingly takes out

A.S. Pushkin. "The Tale of dead princess and about the seven heroes." The origins of the birth of the fairy tale plot. In the evening I listen to fairy tales and thereby compensate for the shortcomings of my upbringing. What a delight these tales are! Each one is

Plan: 1. Creation of a state by Genghis Khan based on the unification of Mongolian tribes. Code of laws "Yaso". 2. The Mongol invasion of Central Asia. The fight against the conquerors. Jalaletdin Manguberdy. 3. Socio-political

The work of Alisher Navoi still arouses interest all over the world, as evidenced by the translations of the great poet’s works into English, French, German and many other languages. Fans

Yu. A. Evstigneev ARE KYPTCHAKS/KUNS/CUMANS/CUMANS ONE ETHNOSE OR FOUR? The question, it would seem, is rhetorical: after all, the tradition of considering the opinion of a Russian has long been firmly established in scientific historical literature

Tashkent University of Information Technologies Department of Humanities DEVELOPMENT OF STATE IN THE IX-XII CENTURIES IN CENTRAL ASIA. POLITICAL, SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND CULTURAL LIFE. Compiled by:

Work program RUSSIAN LITERATURE grade 8 Explanatory note The work program on Russian literature for grade 8 is compiled on the basis of the program by R.I. Albetkova “Fundamentals of Russian literature. From

State budgetary educational institution secondary school 392 with in-depth study of the French language, Kirovsky district of St. Petersburg Accepted “Approved” by the Pedagogical

Yu. A. Evstigneev Cumans: WHO ARE THEY? (On the question of their ethnic identity) Nomadic neighbors of the southern borders of Rus', who have not left the pages of the Russian chronicle for almost 185 years, “heroes” of the monuments of ancient Russian

Allegory is an allegory, when another concept is hidden under a specific image of an object, person, or phenomenon. Alliteration repetition of homogeneous consonant sounds, betraying literary text special

Working curriculum in history for 6th grade students for the 207/208 academic year Explanatory note This working curriculum in history for 6th grade is compiled in accordance with the federal

EXAMINATION TICKETS FOR THE STATE FINAL CERTIFICATION IN LITERATURE FOR BASIC GENERAL EDUCATION PROGRAMS Ticket 1 1. Answer the question: “What is the relevance of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” in our

Program of the discipline "Introduction to Arabic Philology"; 31.6 Oriental and African studies; Professor, Doctor of Science MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION Federal state autonomous institution

Textbook “Literature” for the 8th grade of secondary schools Authors: Asif Gadzhiev Telman Jafarov Ilakha Jarchieva Rena Isaeva Baku: XXI YNE, 2012. FINAL REVIEW prepared on the basis of opinions, comments,

Adopted with extension: by the Pedagogical Council Minutes of August 30, 06 Municipal budgetary educational institution secondary school WORKING PROGRAM of the educational subject

177 ANCIENT TURKIC BELIEFS IN THE ANTHROPONYMIC PICTURE OF THE WORLD TATAR GALİULLİNA, G. R. /GALIULLINA, G. R. RF, TATARİSTAN/RF, TATARSTAN/Рф, TATARSTAN Mythological ideas of the Türks have survived to this day

2. EXPLANATORY NOTE. This program was developed on the basis of the author’s program “Fundamentals of Russian Literature. From words to literature. For grades 5–9” edited by R.I. Albetkova. M.: Bustard, 2011.

PRIVATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF HIGHER EDUCATION "ACADEMY OF SOCIAL EDUCATION" Foundation for assessment funds "History of statehood of the Republic of Tatarstan" Level of higher education Bachelor's degree

List of terms in literature Means of verbal imagery Paths of paths (from the Greek turnover) use of the word in a figurative sense. Tropes include metaphor, epithet, comparison, irony, allegory, hyperbole

BAKI UNİVERSİTETİNİN XƏBƏRLƏRİ 1 Humanitar elmlər seriyası 2015 UOT 930 UOT 398; 801.8 EPOS OF THE TURKIC PEOPLES OF CENTRAL ASIA IN THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES A.I.MUKHTAROVA, S.A.ISMAILOVA Baku State

Glossary Means of artistic expression Alliteration is the deliberate repetition of identical consonant sounds and their combinations: I love a thunderstorm in early May, When the first thunder of spring, As if frolicking

International local history readings dedicated to the 180th anniversary of the birth of Chokan (Muhammad-Khanafia) Chingisovich Valikhanov “Serving the future of his people was his dream” Turkic cultural heritage

Work program of the academic subject For the 2014-2015 academic year Educational field Philology Subject Fundamentals of Russian literature Class 7 Teacher Skokova E.I., Obraztsova L.A. Number of hours per week