Modern forms of racism: languages ​​of description, reproduction, counteraction. Theses. Is racism discrimination against minorities? Causes of racism

Victor Shnirelman

Modern forms of racism: languages ​​of description, reproduction, counteraction.

Theses

The term “racism” appeared relatively recently – only in the 1990s. At that time, biology, physical anthropology, and genetics were on the rise and were widely used by politicians to justify colonial and discriminatory policies against “others” who were described in terms of skin color. Therefore, racism then received a biological form. The world did not know any other kind of racism until the second half of the 20th century.

This racism proceeded from the fact that humanity is divided into objectively existing races, that visible somatic traits are inextricably linked with invisible spiritual ones, that therefore races differ in their mental abilities, and, therefore, are differently capable of progress. From this it was concluded that the dominance of the “white race” was natural, which legitimized discrimination and the colonial system, and in its extreme form, genocide.

Such ideas dominated both public opinion and science. The Soviet people's knowledge of racism was limited to them. It was also inherited by post-Soviet Russia.

Meanwhile, after World War II, the nature of racism changed. The genocide perpetrated by the Nazis revealed the brutal nature of biological racism, and the world turned away from it. A number of European countries have even passed laws allowing racists to be brought to justice. Therefore, they had to develop a special language that made it possible to formalize previous ideas, avoiding biological phraseology. Racism accepted new uniform, which experts call "cultural", "differential" or "symbolic" racism. If previously culture was considered by racists as a derivative of biology, now it has acquired a self-sufficient meaning.

In recent decades, the world has been divided by racists not so much into races, but into cultures and religions, and in this division they seek support from modern science. At the same time, various cultures and religions are interpreted unambiguously as clearly established givens with rigid boundaries, a strict set of characteristics, as transmitted from one generation to another, invariably accompanying a person throughout his life and dictating the characteristics of his behavior. From this point of view, a person is a slave to his supposedly inherent culture and is unable to change. In other words, what was previously associated with biology is now attributed to culture. From this the conclusion is drawn not only about the differences between cultures, but also that a person of one culture will never be able to penetrate the logic of another. This is supposedly why many peoples of Asia and Africa are not only not ready for democracy, but will never be able to transition to it due to their cultural characteristics. And, therefore, they have no place in Europe, to which they not only cannot adapt, but also “spoil” local culture. Modern racists do not seek genocide; they simply believe that each culture and its carriers have their own place on Earth, where they should remain forever. Slogans of modern racism: “incompatibility of cultures”, “inability of migrants to integrate”, “threshold of tolerance”.

Modern racism has become a response to the mass migrations of the era of globalization, which some interpret as "colonialism in reverse." Forgetting that modern nations were formed on a heterogeneous basis, and based on a certain cultural homogeneity inherent in them today, many Europeans are seduced by the above “cultural arguments” to explain their own rejection of “outsiders”.

Notably, these arguments rely on some scientific concepts that are today described as “primordialist” or “essentialist.” These concepts developed during the colonial period, when scientists studied mainly archaic traditional groups, which, indeed, in their culture were sharply different from the one with which the scientists themselves associated themselves. It was then, in a manner characteristic of the modern era, that cultures were described and classified as strictly limited and, of course, different.

Meanwhile, in the second half of the 20th century, this paradigm began to be revised. It was found that there is no direct connection between ethnicity and culture: firstly, culture is dynamic, and secondly, a person is able to move from one culture to another. It turned out that, in addition to primordial, there are multiple, situational, symbolic types of ethnicity (and even non-ethnicity), as well as bilingualism and biculturalism, which reveal a person’s ability to change, re-evaluate, reinterpret the surrounding reality and his place in it. Man turned out to be a more independent and more active subject than assumed by the primordialist approach. This has become especially obvious in the era of postmodernity, globalization and mass migrations. Therefore, primordialism has been replaced by a constructivist approach, which is capable of much better describing the realities of the modern era.

However, as we saw above, cultural racism appeals to the old primordialist approach. Moreover, in post-Soviet Russia, primordialism, inherited from Soviet times, still determines the mood of society and prevails in the minds of scientists. This creates the intellectual basis for the mass xenophobia that has gripped our society.

Unfortunately, many of those who consider themselves opponents of racism do not remain aloof from this trend. Western experts wrote a lot about the racial basis of modern “anti-racism” back in the 1990s. The point was that “anti-racists” often share the basic ideas of racists about the “objective nature” of races and cultures, which inevitably weakens their argument and calls into question the success of their struggle.

In Russia, where cultural racism appears in the form of “ethnicism,” the problem is particularly complex due to the politicization of ethnicity, which is a legacy of the political-administrative division of the USSR. Therefore, primordialist (and racist) concepts have gained extraordinary popularity here, not so much reflecting a scientific vision of the situation, but rather bringing to the point of absurdity the outdated positivist ideas of the modern era, which at one time were taken as the basis for the Soviet project of ethno-territorial division.

Recently, “ethnicism” has been most clearly manifested in the concept of “ethnic crime,” which allows some authors to distinguish the category of “criminogenic peoples.” It's about that supposedly individual nations have their own categories of especially serious crimes. At the same time, the efforts of the police and popular anger are directed not against specific criminals who truly deserve punishment, but wholesale against certain ethnic categories, which, of course, violates human rights. Behind all this there are also ideas about cultural specificity, which supposedly strictly dictates a certain manner of behavior to people.

Overcoming “ethnicism” requires the formation of a civil society, the cultivation of tolerance, broadening the horizons of young people, and abandoning the essentialist paradigm.

Race and racism

Until the mid-20th century, the concept of race was used as a Darwinian way of emphasizing that black people were lower on the evolutionary ladder and more primitive than white people. This was accepted by the scientific community as a proven fact and thus legitimized in scientific biology. Racism comes in several forms, both at the individual and institutionalized levels.

The term "race" has three meanings: biological, vernacular, and political (Fuller & Toon, 1988).

In biology, “race” denotes the genetic isolation of different groups: each “racial” group has a common genetic design, differing in some parameters from the genetic design of other groups. However, the genetic differences within each race are such a wide range that two people belonging to the same racial group may differ from each other more than the average difference between two different groups. The races are not strictly demarcated, and the boundaries between them are drawn conditionally. In medicine, the concept of race is often used as a category that allows specialists to associate certain diseases with gender or other racial groups, for example, cystic fibrosis with certain groups of the white population. This understanding can legitimize racist thinking.

In everyday meaning for non-specialists, race has become synonymous with a person's external characteristics, while skin color has acquired undeservedly great importance.

The use of this term for political purposes allows the majority of the population to consolidate power and minority groups to consider their national characteristics political point of view.

The World Health Organization, in its Lexicon of Cross-Cultural Terms in Mental Health, the World Health Organization, 1997, proposed the following definitions of racism, racial prejudice and ethnocentrism. Racism is the belief that there is an inherent connection between perceived inherited and cultural traits and that some groups of people are biologically superior to others. Racial prejudice is a negative emotional attitude or negative attitude towards an individual or group based on selected social or cultural characteristics. Ethnocentrism is an exaggeration of the value of one's culture in comparison with other cultures; Moreover, tendentious judgments about what is good, correct, beautiful, moral, normal, healthy or reasonable are based on one’s own culture as a standard. Individual manifestations of racism are distinguished from institutionalized racism, which is the collective beliefs of employees of an organization that are deeply ingrained in its system of operations. Despite the fact that most experts have a negative attitude towards the theory of (genetically) transmitted mental disability, it is generally accepted among the population that the qualities of an individual are “in his blood” (Thomas & Sillen 1991).

The MacPherson Report (MacPherson, 1999) defines institutionalized racism as “the collective failure of an organization to provide appropriate professional care to people based on their skin color, culture or ethnic origin. This can be noticed or identified by observing activities, attitudes and behavior with significant manifestations of discrimination in the form of prejudice, ignorance, thoughtlessness and racist thought patterns that disadvantage members of ethnic minorities.”

The main problem with this definition is that it argues for identifying shortcomings in the activities of an organization (as a living organism), but it is not always clear what types of activities these are, who identifies the shortcomings and who should eliminate them. Subjective experiences or interpretations of racism are even more difficult to define because they are partly directly related to individual personality traits that precede life experience and support systems (social and economic).

More early works Bhugra and Bhui (1999) expressed the view that the subjugation of the minority by the majority through the use of historical, social, biological and economic factors is a common phenomenon in human history. There is no doubt that racism and the ideas associated with it appeared in Christian times. In 100 BC, Cicero advised Atticus not to buy slaves from Britain because they were stupid, lazy and untrainable. However, the ideology underlying racism is based on the desire to maintain the status quo and on the belief that one group is superior to another for reasons related only to race or biology. Race is a taxonomic concept of limited usefulness, and over the past 30 years it has begun to give way to the terms “ethnicity” and “cultural groups”, which are much less defined. Racism can be seen as an ideology, as an established order, and as a social construct.

It is necessary to distinguish between racism and racial discrimination. The first is limited to reasoning about dividing humanity into races (which can lead to cathocentrism). The second concept, on the contrary, concerns the actual forms of human behavior. Racism comes in many forms, some of which are reflected below.

Types of racism

Dominant. Hatred is embodied in actions.

Aversive. The individual is convinced of his superiority, but cannot act.

Regressive. An individual's views of racism are manifested by regressive forms of behavior.

Subconscious instinctive racism. Fear of strangers.

Instinctive racism explained. Rationalization, justification of fear of strangers.

Cultural. Rejection, slander about the peculiarities of spending free time, observing customs in society and everyday life.

Institutionalized. Relations within the organization's staff treat some individuals as inferior.

Paternalistic. The majority “knows” what is good for the minority.

"Color-blind" racism. Acknowledging differences is seen as causing discord between cultures.

Neo-racism. Hidden in "individualism": positive action is discouraged, the presence of racism is viewed from the perspective of the group's existing achievements.

It must be emphasized that racism is not a static phenomenon. In addition, it must be distinguished from racist behavior, in which one person's racial prejudice towards another is manifested through action. Racism uses beliefs and customs to justify and maintain inequality, to prevent certain groups from entering society and dominating others. It is interesting to use the tactic of “color blinding” as a form of racism. When “color-blind” people deal with a group of people of a lower social level with a different skin color, they do not perceive them as having their own history, culture, spiritual and socio-economic essence. Racism can also exacerbate the impact of poverty on people's health.

Moore (2000) believes that important factors The emergence of racism became the psychology of colonialism, the restriction of the use of information, communications and freedoms. A racist of a dominant type openly displays racial intolerance, while a racist of an aversive type shows hostility and tries to avoid contact. The racist tendencies of some people may take the form of unconscious manifestations of mass behavior (Kovel, 1984). Hatred by others (“them-group”) (see definition below in the section “Significant Life Events Related to Race”) and authoritarianism also contribute to the maintenance of the status quo.

Psychiatry reflects prevailing societal values; it can be overwhelming and can be perceived as overwhelming if people are isolated against their will. This situation creates a feeling of alienation, and as a result of this feeling over a period of time, members of ethnic minorities may experience even greater humiliation. The impact of racism on scientific research and educational institutions is extremely difficult to characterize.

Significant life events associated with racism

For members of ethnic minorities, the roles of significant life events related to race are many and varied (Bhugra & Ayonrinde, 2001). Individuals and groups of people can be greatly affected by migration (see Bhugra & Cochrane, 2001). It is difficult to obtain accurate data on the prevalence of assault, violence and racially motivated crimes (harassment, assault and insults). This is due to several reasons: sometimes people do not understand the racial background of these aggressive actions and therefore do not mention them in their statements; the race of the offender is not always known; victims may mistakenly attribute racial motives to the conflict; they may not apply due to ongoing persecution or lack of sufficient evidence of wrongdoing.

The British Crime Survey (BCS) and police records use different approaches to data collection. The BCS records both actual offenses (eg, vandalism, burglary, theft, assault, assault) and threats of violence. Police officers record only committed offenses, although they also note any racial motives if they are reported or suspected by investigative authorities. BCS data concerns persons over 16 years of age, and the police register offenders regardless of age. Fitzgerald and Hale (1996) report from the BCS that only 2% of all crimes committed by victims were racially motivated, about a quarter of which were committed in urban ghettos.

Ethnic differences exist in reporting tendencies (Commission for Racial Equality, 1999). Speaking about the type of offense, the form of communication and the delay in filing a statement, it must be admitted that these aspects remain insufficiently studied.

According to Chahal and Julienne (1999), 43-62% of racially motivated conflicts are not reported. Reported offenses included assault, harassment, insults and threats, and property damage. It is unlikely that a report will be filed regarding conflicts related to the inability to obtain a job, bail money to finance schooling or medical care, etc. In their study of subjective experiences of racism, these authors used qualitative methods to show that survivors described racial conflict as a common practice in the society in which they live. The authors also used a variety of methods to identify such events, most of which involved personal or social relationships. Difficulties in identification were most often associated with feelings of shame, failure, hopelessness or mistrust. Only the increasing frequency of conflicts forced people to submit statements to the authorities provided for by law. Most often they turned to general practitioners, but in most cases the results were not completely satisfactory (for example, the doctor could write a letter to the authorities Housing Authority asking for help with housing, but not more than that). Thus, even if conflicts are identified, they are usually not given appropriate weight. In this group of patients, complaints of anger, tension, depression, increased irritability and sleep disturbances were usually repeated.

Significant life events associated with race are problems that relate directly to racial behavior, and they arise in various areas of life. Areas in which significant life events associated with race occur:

Education.

Employment.

Healthcare.

Cases of insult.

Causing material damage.

Law and social security.

Race-related difficulties can be defined as ongoing difficulties in an individual's life that may be related to racial aspects and last for more than one month. These include problems with housing, employment, social functioning and education.

Members of ethnic minorities may not only be exposed to stressors common to the general population, but also experience stress related to their minority status. These specific causes include traumatic factors (for example, racial prejudice, hostility and discrimination), as well as external mediating elements (system social support) and internal (cognitive factors) that influence an individual’s perception of significant life events. Smith (1985) proposed the terms “the out-group” and “the in-group” to characterize the situation of minority groups (“them-group”) living in a majority culture (“we”). -group"). The in-group status leads to social isolation, social marginalization and insecurity, which increases people's anxiety. Incomplete or partial assimilation of representatives of national minorities under conditions new culture majority (of the receiving country), and complete or partial rejection of their own culture may turn out to be additional psychologically traumatic factors.

Racism and mental disorders

Racism, whether individual or institutionalized, can create many problems, some of which are outlined below. A feeling of instability of one's own position may develop when a person has two or more different and incompatible social statuses (for example, social status a certain person is in conflict with this status arising from ethnic origin). This contradiction between role and status is likely to lead to adjustment difficulties or mental disorders (Smith, 1985). Since representatives of national minorities are more “visible” among the majority population, their actions acquire symbolic meaning and stereotypical ideas are internalized by society. Smith (1985) suggests that visibility, increased attention, lack of anonymity, polarization, and role disruption are factors that increase stress and make life difficult in the long term. Problems related to racism

Institutionalized racism

Stereotypes of perception.

Rejection.

Prejudice.

Devaluation of culture.

Individual racism

Stereotypes of perception.

Rejection.

Prejudice.

Devaluation of culture.

Aggressive actions.

Racism is a multidimensional phenomenon, and many methods have been developed to measure the impact of significant life events on a multi-axis basis.

Jackson and colleagues (1996) showed that cumulative exposure to racism and racial discrimination worsens mental health more than physical health. There is a need to further explore the role of “locus of control” as a confounding variable when assessing the psychological functioning of ethnic minorities.

Depression

The limited data available suggests that significant events social life, as well as significant life events in general, are significantly correlated with depression. Several studies have demonstrated higher rates of depressive disorders in ethnic minority groups (Nazroo, 1997; Shaw etal, 1999) and it has been suggested that this is due to separation from the usual environment, unemployment, poverty and racism. In a study of deliberate self-harm among Asian women, Bhugra and colleagues (1999) found that about one quarter of the sample had experienced a significant life event that was associated with race, although causality could not be established from this study.

Anxiety

Models of stress suggest an increase in the level of anxiety in anticipation of possible threatening life events. In a study conducted in New Zealand, Pernice and Brook (1996) found a significant correlation between racial discrimination and high levels of anxiety among immigrants of color. These authors also found that anxiety levels were unexpectedly high among immigrants who spent a significant amount of their free time with members of their own ethnic group. Perhaps these were anxious individuals who sought reassurance in the company of representatives of their ethnic group. Anxiety symptoms have been shown to occur following racist threats (Thompson, 1996; Jones etal, 1996).

Post-traumatic stress disorder

There is evidence of cases of psychogenic disorders with symptoms resembling post-traumatic stress disorder that developed after experiencing manifestations of racial discrimination (Ritsner etal, 1977). Increased vigilance, anxiety, attention problems, high levels of frustration, negativism, social isolation, anxiety, and flashbacks have also been described as a consequence of significant life events associated with race.

Psychoses

Anecdotal evidence suggests an association between psychosis and significant life events related to race, with institutionalized racism being a critical factor in relationships involving treatment adherence and return visits. However, empirical data do not support these conclusions.

Relationships between racially significant life events and development mental disorders complex. Only recently have researchers begun to uncover them.

Racism and mental stress

Manifestations of racism, both individual and institutionalized, are likely to cause chronic stress or long-term difficulties that interfere with people's successful functioning. They understand that they are capable of achieving more, but other people or the system hinder their progress. Obstacles placed on an individual allow him to realize that his interests are being infringed upon, cause him confusion, hurt his self-esteem and lower his self-esteem. These difficulties can also contribute to the further separation of members of national minorities from their ethnic groups, especially in cases where the methods they use to overcome persistent difficulties differ from those used in these groups, which further aggravates the state of mental stress.

CONCLUSION

The individual, whatever he may be ethnic origin, interacts differently with the social and cultural environment in which he lives, and reacts to existing difficulties or acute mental trauma. Significant life events experienced by a person related to race, their understanding of them, as well as permanent manifestations of racism, apparently accelerate the development of mental disorders. However, there remains a lack of research in this area, and some studies have had questionable data collection methods, making any interpretation and generalization very difficult.

racism is racism
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Racism- a set of views based on the principles of the physical and mental inequality of human races, nations and the decisive influence of racial differences on history and culture.

There is also a slightly broader definition of racism. Thus, the Encyclopedia Britannica states that the belief that racial characteristics have a decisive influence on the abilities, intelligence, morality, behavioral characteristics and character traits of an individual is racist. human personality, rather than a society or social group. Racism necessarily includes ideas about the original division of people into superior and inferior races, of which the former are the creators of civilization and are called upon to dominate the latter. The implementation of racist theories in practice sometimes finds expression in policies of racial discrimination.

• 1 Definitions
• 2 History
• 3 USA
  • 3.1 African Americans
• 4 Europe
  • 4.1 Britain
  • 4.2 Germany
    • 4.2.1 United Germany
  • 4.3 Italy
• 5 South Africa
• 6 Israel
• 7 Russia
• 8 Japan
• 9 Criticism of racism
  • 9.1 Criticism of the concept of the human race
  • 9.2 Ideology
• 10 Combating racism and racial discrimination
  • 10.1 Positive discrimination
• 11 Scandals and accusations of racism
  • 11.1 Christopher Brand
  • 11.2 James Watson
• 12 See also
• 13 Notes
• 14 Links

Definitions of the term

Word "racism" was first recorded by the French dictionary of Larousse in 1932 and was interpreted as “a system asserting the superiority of one racial group over others.” Its current meaning in political discourse is sometimes expanded to include racial superiority as an ethnic, religious, or other criterion. The book “Racism” made a great contribution to the definition of the modern concept of racism. French philosopher Albert Memmi.

At the same time, as many countries have developed strong multiracial and multicultural societies, definitions of racism have needed to be expanded. Racism is understood as the belief that race has a decisive influence on the character, morals, talents, abilities and behavioral characteristics of an individual human personality. Thus, Russian scientist Vladimir Malakhov writes in his work “The Discreet Charm of Racism”:

Racism practiced to the end XIX century(a recurrence of which took place in Germany between 1933 and 1945) can be called traditional, or classic. It is difficult to suspect racists of our day of racism. At the level of the declared theses, they are absolutely correct. Count Gobineau and his associates believed, in particular, that biological differences are the source of sociocultural differences. They established a relation of determination between “race” (biological belonging) and “civilization” (cultural belonging). They believed that the thinking and behavior of individuals is determined (or, more precisely, predetermined) by the essential characteristics of the groups to which these individuals belong. The main one of these postulates is the irremovability of differences.

Victor Shnirelman writes that modern “new racism” places the emphasis not so much on blood as on culture. According to these ideas, a person is not considered as an individual rapidly changing in accordance with environment and adapting to it, but as a member of some ethnic or even civilizational community, which mechanically reproduces the behavioral stereotypes of this community. French sociologist Pierre Tagueve coined the term "differentialist racism" to distinguish between the idea of ​​a superior/inferior race and the idea of ​​insurmountable differences/incompatibilities between large communities.

Shnirelman and other researchers believe that racism today is evolving and adapting to a new situation, so there is reason to talk about “new racism.” The new racism emphasizes group (ethnic or ethnoracial) identity, absolutizing its meaning. In Russia, it is the ethnic factor that has been associated for decades with one form or another of discrimination, similar to racial discrimination. Therefore, in Russia there is much more reason to talk about the connection between racism and ethnicity. At the same time, the main emphasis of modern Russian racists is on the incomparability of different cultures. Supporters of this approach fight for the preservation of “pure cultures” and cultural identity, and oppose any outside influence on them. Russian historian A. B. Davidson, in his article “Anti-racist racism,” cites a statement by N. N. Lysenko, reflecting a similar view of interethnic relations:

Russians and Chechens, Russians and Azerbaijanis, Russians and Georgians, Russians and Uzbeks, Russians and Arabs, Russians and Negroes are absolutely non-complementary nations (that is, incompatible). This means that our interests will always be directly opposed, and any approach to each other at a distance closer than a pistol shot will be perceived as a challenge.

At the same time, the source of the sociocultural characteristics of a particular group is determined by biological, natural properties. According to the Russian researcher V.S. Malakhov, it does not matter what these properties are called - “folk spirit”, “cultural type”, properties of “race”. All these designations perform the same function that “blood” (or “genes”) performs in classical racism: they imply the inheritance of social characteristics. quality characteristic features modern racism, researchers call the biological understanding of nationality, the concept of the nation as a community of “blood” and the mythologization of one or another imaginary group associated with this concept as a special human species.

Story

See also: Racial theory

Ideas about the initial inequality of different races appeared quite a long time ago. Yes, back in XVI-XVII centuries a hypothesis arose that traced the origin of blacks to the biblical Ham, cursed by his father Noah, which was a justification for the conversion of blacks into slavery..

But the founder of “scientific racism” (and in particular Nordism) is considered to be the French historian Joseph de Gobineau, who in his “Essay on the Inequality of Human Races” (1853-1855) proposed a thesis about the influence of the racial composition of the societies in question on the characteristics of their cultures, social systems, economic models, and ultimately - on their civilizational success. The Nordic race, according to Gobineau, has throughout history demonstrated superiority over others in the organization of society and cultural progress. He explained the greatness of the ancient Greek and Roman civilizations by the assumption that at the time of the rise of civilization, the ruling elites in these countries were Nordics.

After J. Gobineau, racist ideas became quite widespread. They, in particular, were developed by the French sociologist and psychologist Gustave Le Bon in his work “Psychology of the Crowd”. The idea of ​​inequality of human races was also defended by the famous French anthropologist Armand de Quatrefage.

Racist concepts were also developed by the English aristocrat Houston Stuart Chamberlain, who moved to Germany, in the book “Foundations of the Nineteenth Century” (1899), which glorified the “Teutonic” race, the book “The Aryan World Outlook” (Russian translation. M., 1913) and a number of other works .

USA

Main article: Racism in the USA See also: Race riots in the USA

Racism in the United States has existed since the founding of the state. The society, founded by white people who differed in their nationality and religion, differed greatly in their attitude towards other groups. The victims of racism were the indigenous people - the Indians.

African Americans

Main article: African Americans

African slaves were first brought to British Virginia by English colonists in 1619. As of 1860, out of a population of 12 million in the 15 American states where slavery remained, 4 million were slaves. Of the 1.5 million families living in these states, more than 390 thousand families owned slaves.

Slave labor was widely used in the plantation economy, allowing American slave owners to receive high profits. During the first half of the 19th century, the national wealth of the United States was largely based on the exploitation of slave labor. During the period from the 16th century to the 19th century, about 12 million Africans were brought to the countries of America, of which about 645 thousand were brought to the territory of the modern United States.

Although Congress banned the importation of new slaves from Africa in 1808, the practice continued for at least another half century. Slavery was abolished during the American Civil War in 1863 by a proclamation by US President Abraham Lincoln, which was confirmed by the 13th Amendment to the US Constitution, which was adopted in 1865.

In the southern states of the United States, centuries of slavery and decades of segregation created a legal and political system that was characterized by white supremacy. Blacks were prevented from voting by various means. There were laws (Jim Crow Laws) according to which blacks could not study in schools and universities together with whites, had to occupy specially designated seats on public transport, etc. Many shops, restaurants, and hotels refused to serve blacks. Blacks always called whites "Mr." or "Mrs.," although whites rarely accorded blacks such polite address.

Racist election poster used during the 1866 Pennsylvania gubernatorial election.

Significant progress in overcoming racism in the United States began in the 1960s, when, as a result of the successes of the civil rights movement, racial discrimination was legally prohibited.

But in the USA during the same period, as a peculiar defensive reaction In response to centuries of oppression of blacks, “black racism” arose. It was clearly manifested in the sermons of Fard Mohammed and his follower, the founder of the Nation of Islam, Elijah Mohammad. It is also associated with “Afrocentric Egyptology”, which has become widespread in the United States, whose supporters claim that the ancient Egyptians were black, the ancient Egyptian culture was the source of the ancient Greek and thus all European culture and at the same time there was and is a conspiracy of white racists in order to hide all this.

Europe

Main article: Nordicism

Britannia

Some researchers locate the origins of Nazi philosophy in the imperialist ideology and practice of the British Empire. According to Sarkisyants, the real teacher of the Nazis was the English philosopher Thomas Carlyle.

Germany

Third Reich

Main article: Nazi racial policy Main article: Racial hygiene Main article: Gunther's racial theory Main article: SS General Office for Race and Settlement United Germany

According to the German Office for the Protection of the Constitution, the number of far-right extremists in Germany increased by half in 2009 - from about 20 thousand to 30. Experts explain this by the deterioration of the economic situation and the drop in living standards due to the global financial crisis.

Italy

• April 19, 1937 - decree banning mixing with Ethiopians
• December 30, 1937 - decree banning mixing with Arabs
• November 17, 1938 - decree banning mixing with Jews and banning Jews from government and military service

Abolished after the fall of fascism in 1943.

According to recent studies, racial hatred remains at a high level in Europe. The problem also lies in the fact that even migrants from third world countries who moved to Europe become carriers of racial prejudice.

South Africa

Main article: Apartheid

In 1973, the UN General Assembly adopted the International Convention for the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid, which entered into force in 1976. The apartheid regime was called “criminal” because of the racial segregation of the Caucasian and Negroid population of the Republic of South Africa.

After the elimination of apartheid and the success of the anti-colonial struggle, as a result of which parties representing the black population came to power in South Africa, Zimbabwe and Namibia, signs of racism against whites appeared in these countries. Thus, in Zimbabwe in 2008, a law was passed stating that only blacks could own any business in the country.

Israel

Main article: Racism in Israel

Russia

Main article: Racism in Russia

In the Russian Empire, during the reign of Nicholas II, the concept of “Jewishness” began to be defined not so much by religious as by racial criteria. In connection with this, in 1910 the promotion of baptized Jews as officers was prohibited, and in 1912 - their children and grandchildren.

Japan

In 2005, Dudu Dien, the special rapporteur of the UN Commission on Human Rights, expressed concern about racism in Japan and said the government needed to acknowledge the depth of the problem. Over nine days of investigation, Dien concluded that racial discrimination and xenophobia in Japan primarily affects three groups: minorities, Latinos of Japanese descent, mainly Japanese Brazilians, and foreigners from other Asian countries.

Criticism of racism

Racism is often criticized from a cultural perspective, for example, Otto Kleinberg justifies the low results of black minorities on intellectual tests social status, working and living conditions.

Igor Kon criticizes racism from a psychological position, saying that racists transfer their hatred to various kinds of minorities:

The image of the panda is used to unite all races.

The most recent anthropological discoveries confirm the unity of the human race. The geographical dispersion of the human race contributed to its racial differentiation, without nevertheless affecting its fundamental biological unity. Whatever the established differences, biology in no way allows us to establish a hierarchy between individuals and populations, especially since no group of people actually has a permanent genetic pool. In any case, it is never possible, without sinning against the truth, to move from stating the fact of differences to asserting the existence of a superiority-inferiority relationship. Among the most important characteristics of a person, intellectual activity occupies the main place. To characterize this activity, certain scientific disciplines have developed specific measurement methods. Designed for the purpose of comparing individuals within a population, these methods cannot, by their nature, be used effectively for inter-population comparisons. It is unacceptable and scientifically unfounded to use the results of psychological tests, in particular IQ, for the purpose of ostracism and racial discrimination. There is nothing in the social sciences that suggests that racism is collective behavior, which inevitably manifests itself in the case of the dominance of certain types public relations between different ethnic groups. On the contrary, diversity and coexistence of cultures and races in multiple societies are the most successful form of mutual enrichment of peoples. Racism, which manifests itself in many forms, is actually a complex phenomenon in which numerous factors are intertwined: economic, political, historical, cultural, social and psychological. Only by addressing these factors can racism be effectively combated. Racism is the most common weapon in the hands of some groups seeking to assert their economic and political power. Its most dangerous forms are apartheid and genocide. Racism also consists of denying some peoples their history and not recognizing their contribution to the progress of mankind. From the final statement of the UNESCO scientific colloquium in Athens, 1981)

Criticism of the concept of the human race

Main article: Human race

Ideology

Combating racism and racial discrimination

Main article: Antiracism

The UN General Assembly at its 25th session (1970) adopted a resolution proclaiming “the firm determination to achieve the complete elimination of racial discrimination and racism, against which the conscience and sense of justice of all mankind rebel.”

The Moscow "group of specialist experts" from UNESCO condemned all types of racism in 1964.

In 1966, the General Assembly established the International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination.

In 2001, the General Assembly proclaimed “ International Year mobilizing efforts to combat racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance.”

In 2001, the General Assembly held hearings of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, where it was noted that efforts to combat racism and racial discrimination were now in their third decade.

The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination defines racial discrimination as follows:

Positive discrimination

Main article: Positive discrimination

Positive discrimination (English: affirmative action) is the creation of advantages for previously discriminated against racial, sexual or religious minorities in order to equalize their position: for example, measures practiced in the United States to increase the number of representatives of the African race in government agencies and private companies. This practice, which gained institutionalized support in the second half of the 20th century, is not considered racist by the government and is not prosecuted.

Critics of the policy of “positive discrimination” demand its abolition, since, in their opinion, this phenomenon fully falls within the definition of racism according to the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination

Scandals and accusations of racism

Christopher Brand

In late February 1996, Wiley and Sons published The G Factor, a book by Scottish psychologist Christopher Brand that explores the hereditary nature of psychological and mental differences and argues that the public education system is incapable of accommodating those differences. In conversations with journalists about this book, Brand expressed his opinion about the innate psychological differences “between whites and blacks.” In April of that year, Wiley stopped publication of that book. Brand claims that at the same time, the administration of the University of Edinburgh, after 26 years without a single complaint, began a “witch hunt” against him. Brand was fired from his university position on August 8, 1997, for arguing professionally in defense of Daniel Carlton Gajdusek ( Nobel Prize in physiology and medicine), convicted of child abuse.

James Watson

In October 2007, the British newspaper The Sunday Times quoted leading geneticist James Watson as saying that the "social policies" pursued by civilized countries in Africa are flawed because they are based on the assumption that blacks are no different from whites in their innate intellectual abilities. while “all experience says that this is not so.” According to the scientist, it is natural for people to want to think that they are all equal, but “people who have dealt with menial workers know that this is not true.”

James Watson's new book, Avoid Boring People, makes similar points. The genetic scientist claims that in the next decade genes that are responsible for differences in the level of human intelligence may be discovered.

The British Science Museum has canceled a planned lecture by Nobel laureate James Watson over the famous geneticist's remarks about the intellectual superiority of the white race over the black race.

On October 25, 2007, Nobel laureate James Watson was forced to resign as head of the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory due to a scandal caused by his remarks about blacks.

See also

• Racial theory
• White supremacy
• The one drop of blood rule
• International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination

Notes

1. 1 2 racism (English). - article from Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
2. For example: “Racism is a doctrine that proclaims the superiority of one human race over another.” - Large illustrated encyclopedic dictionary(authorized translation of Philip’s Millenium Encyclopedia), M., Astrel, 2003
3. Shnirelman V. A. Xenophobia, new racism and ways to overcome them. Humanitarian thought of the South of Russia. Retrieved October 31, 2011. Archived from the original on February 3, 2012.
4. 1 2 3 Shnirelman V. Racism in modern Russia: theory and practice (inaccessible link from 05/26/2013 (744 days) - history, copy) // Interethnic relations and conflicts in post-Soviet states: annual report, 2003. M., 2004. P. 30.
5. 1 2 3 Shabaev Yu. P., Sadokhin A. P. Ethnopolitical science: training manual. - M.: UNITY-DANA, 2005. P. 148.
6. Malakhov V.S. Nationalism as a political ideology. M.: KDU, 2005. pp. 192-193.
7. Davidson A. B. Antiracist racism. New and recent history. Retrieved October 30, 2011. Archived from the original on September 1, 2012.
8. Malakhov V.S. Nationalism as a political ideology: textbook. - M.: KDU, 2005. P. 192-193.
9. Malakhov V.S. Nationalism as a political ideology. - M.: KDU, 2005. P. 190
10. Shabaev Yu. P., Sadokhin A. P. Ethnopolitical science: textbook. - M.: UNITY-DANA, 2005. P. 147-148.
11. Malakhov V. S. The modest charm of racism
12. Shider L. Encyclopedia of the Third Reich. NY., 1976
13. 1860 Census Results
14. James Oliver Horton; Lois E. Horton (2005). Slavery and the Making of America. New York: Oxford University Press, p. 7. ISBN 0-19-517903-X. "The slave trade and the products created by slaves" labor, particularly cotton, provided the basis for America's wealth as a nation. Such wealth provided capital for the country's industrial revolution and enabled the United States to project its power into the rest of the world "
15. Yu. Semenov. Philosophy of history
16. Expert Online: The Last Romantic
17. “RosBusinessConsulting” “Increasing racism noted in Europe”, May 21, 2009
18. 1 2 Jasper Ridley. Mussolini. M.AST, 1999
19. Legislative Assembly of the Province of Emilia-Romagna. (inaccessible link from 05/21/2013 (749 days) - history, copy)
20. Manahaim
21. Racial preferences in online dating
22. Davidson A. B. Antiracist racism? - New and recent history, 2002, No. 2
23. Business in Zimbabwe will only be available to blacks. newsru.com. Retrieved October 28, 2011. Archived from the original on February 3, 2012.
24. Semyon Goldin Russian army and Jews on the eve of the First World War.
25. Dudakov S. Romanovs and Jews // Paradoxes and quirks of philosemitism and anti-Semitism in Russia. - M.: Russian State University for the Humanities, 2000. - 640 p. - ISBN 5-7281-0441-X.
26. Press Conference by Mr Doudou Diène, Special Rapporteur of the Commission on Human Rights. Retrieved January 5, 2007. Archived from the original on February 11, 2012.
27. "Japan racism "deep and profound." BBC News (2005-07-11). Retrieved on 2007-01-05.
28. "Overcoming "Marginalization" and "Invisibility"", International Movement against all forms of Discrimination and Racism (PDF). Retrieved January 5, 2007. Archived from the original on February 11, 2012.
29. Twenty-fifth session (inaccessible link from 05/21/2013 (749 days) - history, copy) on the UN website.
30. Big Soviet encyclopedia, article "Racism"
31. Report of the Committee on Racial Discrimination, 58th, 59th UN sessions, 2001 (inaccessible link from 05/21/2013 (749 days) - history, copy)
32. (English) "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy."
33. Outrage over DNA pioneer theory: Africans are less intelligent than Westerners. The Independent newspaper. 10/17/2007. (English)
34. 1 2 Nobel laureate deprived of lecture for racist views. BBC Russian Service. 10/18/2007.
35. The British accused the Nobel laureate of racism. Lenta.ru. 10/17/2007
36. The Nobel laureate accused of racism was escorted into retirement with honor. Lenta.ru. 10/25/2007.

Wiktionary has an article "racism"

Links

• International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination
• UN Declaration on Race and Racial Prejudice
• European Commission against Racism and Intolerance (English) (French)
• Kon I. “Psychology of Prejudice” - detailed material on the socio-psychological roots of ethnic prejudices
• Miles R., Brown M. Racism and class relations // Racism. - M.: “Russian Political Encyclopedia” (ROSSPEN), 2004. - P. 145-176.
• Alain de Benoit What is racism? // Athenaeus. - No. 5. - P. 21-26.
• Tsvetan Todorov. Race and racism
• Gobineau J. A. Experience on the inequality of human races
• Bulgakov S. N. Racism and Christianity
• Biological currents in ethnography. Racism // S. A. Tokarev. History of foreign ethnography.
• The structure of racism and recovery. Lecture 2
• Novikov O. G. Formation of the ideology of the African-American movement “Black Power” in the 50-60s of the XX century. On the issue of the emergence of “black” racism.
• Criticism of racism in modern Russia and a scientific view of the problem of ethnocultural diversity. - M.: Moscow Bureau of Human Rights, “Academia”, 2008. - P. 124. - ISBN 5-87532-022-6.
• V. Malakhov. The Discreet Charm of Racism
• V. Shnirelman THE NEW RACISM OF RUSSIA (inaccessible link from 05/21/2013 (749 days) - history, copy)
• N. Kevorkova. Survival Universities for Foreign Students in Russia
• P. Tikhonov. Is there racism in Russia? (racism in Russia and football)
• New paths of old fascism (about the new book by T. Sarrazin)

Story	Apartheid · Holocaust · Racial democracy · Anti-racism · Human rights activists
Ideologies	White Supremacy · Negritude · Black Racism · Social Darwinism · Nazism · Racial Theory · Ketuanan Melayu
Manifestations	Institutional racism · State racism · Hatred · Racial segregation · Stereotype · Scientific racism · Slavery · Ethnocide
Violence	Ethnic cleansing · Hate crime · Genocide · Lynching
Movements and organizations	Ku Klux Klan · Neo-Nazism · Bozkurt · National Party (South Africa) · Nation of Islam · Black Panthers
Antiracism	ECRI · Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination · NARC · Anti-Defamation League · Antifa · Civil Rights Movement · Human Rights Fest · Legal Center on Southern Poverty (English) · Searchlight (English)
Racism by country	Racism in the USA Racism in Russia Racism in Israel Racism in Latvia

racism, racism in sports, racism in Ukraine, racism in human history, racism Wikipedia, racism tools, racism pictures, racism T-shirt, racism this, racism is

Racism Information About

ABSTRACT

Topic: the problem of racism in the modern world

Completed:

11th grade student

Zuykov Mikhail

Checked:

Muratova T.I.

Alatyr 2016

Introduction……………………………3

The origin of racism……………………………4

Racism in the modern world……………………………6

Modern manifestations of racism

Skinheads

National Socialist Movement

Black racism

Racism in Russia

Attitude of public opinion towards racism……………………………9

Anti-racism

Supporters of racism

Racism is good

Racism is bad

List of references……………………………14

Introduction

The word “racism” is a derivative of the noun “race”, which has long ceased to mean French the concept of "clan" or "family". In the 16th century, it was customary to refer to belonging to a “good race”, and also to declare oneself a person of good “breed”, a “nobleman”. Emphasizing one's origin was a way to stand out, to show one's importance, which was also a unique form of social discrimination. The commoner, who dreamed of “noble blood,” tried not to mention the name of his ancestors. Gradually, the “merit of origin” changes its content, and at the end of the 17th century the word “race” is already used to divide humanity into several large genera. The new interpretation of geography saw the Earth not only divided into countries and regions, but also inhabited by “four or five genera or races, the difference between which is so great as to serve as the basis for a new division of the Earth.” In the 18th century, along with other meanings of the term, in which it can sometimes mean a social class, the idea is given in Natural History that races are varieties of the human race, in principle one. These varieties “are the result of mutations, peculiar distortions that are passed on from generation to generation.”

The word “racism” was first recorded by the French dictionary Larousse in 1932 and was interpreted as “a system asserting the superiority of one racial group over others.” Its current meaning in a political sense is sometimes expanded by adding ethnic, religious or other criteria to the racial criterion of superiority. At the same time, as many countries have developed strong multiracial and multicultural societies, the definition of racism has needed to be expanded. Racism is understood as the belief that race has a decisive influence on the character, morals, talents, abilities and behavioral characteristics of an individual human personality.

Origins of racism

Ideas about the initial inequality of different races appeared quite a long time ago. The first hint of discrimination against blacks can be found in the inscription on the obelisk erected at the second waterfall of the Nile, by order of Pharaoh Sesostris III: “Southern border. The wall erected in the 8th year of the reign of Sesostris III, king of Upper and Lower Egypt, who has always existed and will exist forever. Before this border, crossing by land with herds, or by water by boat, any black is prohibited from crossing, except those who wish to cross in order to sell or buy something in any market. These people will be received hospitably, but it is always forbidden for any black to go down the river beyond the Heh in a boat on all occasions.”

Aristotle's theory of "natural slavery" has proven to be a powerful source of reference that has been cited by many racist anthropologists over the centuries. But it should be noted that, writing about slaves “by nature,” Aristotle did not at all mean a slave as a representative of another race. Slaves in ancient times there were people who belonged to the same race as their masters. It’s just that over the centuries, poor and unprotected peoples who were unable to withstand the onslaught of conquerors became slaves.

In the 16th-17th centuries, a hypothesis appeared that traced the origin of blacks to the biblical Ham, cursed by his father Noah, which was a justification for the conversion of blacks into slavery.

IN mid-19th century, the first generalizing works on racism appeared. In his essay “An Essay on the Inequality of Human Races,” J. A. Gobineau declared the Aryans to be the highest race, whom he considered the creators of all high civilizations, preserved in their purest form among the aristocracy Germanic peoples. Gobineau did not give an exact description of the characteristic features of the “Aryans”; he sometimes attributed to them roundness of the head, and sometimes elongation, sometimes light, sometimes dark or even black eyes (it should be taken into account that he himself was a Frenchman with black eyes). Gobineau's theory, based on the wrongful identification of races and language families, became cornerstone many racist concepts.

The idea of ​​inequality of human races flared up with extreme force in America during the period of aggravation of the issue of the slave trade. When in 1844 England, supported by France, approached US Foreign Secretary Calgown with a proposal to free blacks and stop human trafficking, Calgown was at a loss and did not know how to formulate a response to the two European powers. On the advice of the then famous anthropologist Morton, Calgown drew up a note addressed to England, in which he rejected any change in the legal status of blacks, since blacks supposedly represent a special breed of people.

On November 17, 1863, the first meeting of the London Anthropological Society, the first anthropological organization in England, opened. The president of the society, James Ghent, gave a report on the topic “The Negro’s Place in Nature,” which presented numerous evidence of the inequality of whites and blacks, and the most negative properties of human nature were attributed to blacks.

Subsequently, racist ideas were closely intertwined with social Darwinism, whose representatives carried over the teachings of Charles Darwin about natural selection and the struggle for existence on human society. After the First World War, mainly in Germany in reactionary circles, the “Nordic myth” about the superiority of the Northern or Nordic race over all other races gained popularity. During the years of Hitler's dictatorship in Germany, racism, which became the official ideology of fascism, was used to justify the seizure of foreign lands, the physical extermination of many millions of civilians (primarily in the USSR and Slavic countries), imprisonment in concentration camps, torture

and executions of anti-fascists in Germany itself. Similar “racist practices” were carried out by Japanese militarists in China and other Asian countries, and by Italian fascists in Ethiopia, Albania, and Greece.

However, racism is not only a European phenomenon. Politicians in many countries resorted to racism when they felt the need to justify the “right” to dominate or take over. A striking example That's because of Japanese racism. Once Japan began colonial expansion into other countries (such as China), the theory of superiority was created " Japanese race“over all other races and peoples of the world (General Araki, Tainzaki Junichiro, Akiyama Kenzoo and other “Japanists”). “Original” racist theories were created at one time by some Pan-Turks, ideologists of the gentry of Poland, Finnish reactionaries who dreamed of creating a “great Finland” from Scandinavia to the Urals, something similar is put forward by Jewish chauvinists who praise the greatness of God’s “chosen” people - Israel, etc. d.

In the 19th century, Indianism emerged in Latin America, the belief that the only full-fledged race is the Americanoid.

In the 60s XX century in Africa former president Senegal, Senghor created the concept of négritude, based on black racism. The germs of the concept go back to the 20s and 30s. to the French colonies, where they tried to assimilate the races. Then the black population resisted this.

Racism in the modern world

Modern manifestations of racism

In the past few years, conflicts based on ethnic hatred have intensified. When you go out into the street now, you can meet representatives of racist, nationalist, fascist, and neo-Nazi groups. Football groups also stand apart, which lately have linked interethnic strife with their favorite sport, homeland, justice and everything else possible. Here are the most famous manifestations of racism today.

Skinheads

Skinheads are representatives of marginal informal associations, usually of the ultra-right, extreme nationalist persuasion.

The appearance of skinheads: plaid shirts, denim jackets, thin suspenders and rolled up jeans.

The main skinhead organization is considered to be Honor and Blood, a structure founded in 1987 by Ian Stewart Donaldson, a musician who died in a car accident in Derbshire at the end of 1993. Stewart's group, Skrewdriver, was for many years the most popular skin group in Britain and throughout the world. all over the world. Under the name Klansmen, the group made several recordings for the American market - one of their songs has the characteristic title FetchtheRope. Stewart has always preferred to call himself simply a "Nazi" rather than a "neo-Nazi." In an interview with a London newspaper, he said: “I admire everything that Hitler did, except for one thing - his defeat.”

Today, most skinheads are hostile to blacks, Jews, foreigners and homosexuals. Although there are left-wing or red skinheads, the so-called redskins and even the organization “Skinheads against racial violence”. Therefore, clashes between red skinheads and Nazi skinheads are common.

Skinheads-neo-Nazis different countries They are active fighting groups. These are street fighters who oppose racial mixing, which has spread like an infection throughout the world. They glorify the purity of the race and the brutally masculine lifestyle. In Germany they fight against the Turks, in Hungary, Slovakia and the Czech Republic against gypsies, in Britain - Asians, in France - blacks, in the USA against racial minorities and immigrants and in all countries against homosexuals, and the “eternal enemy”, the Jews; in addition, in many countries, they drive away homeless people, drug addicts and other, in their opinion, the dregs of society.

Racism is a psychology, ideology and social practice based on anti-scientific, misanthropic ideas and ideas about the physical and psychological inequality of human races, about the admissibility and necessity of the dominance of “superior” races over “inferior” ones. Racism and nationalism are interconnected. By absolutizing the minor external hereditary characteristics of a particular race (skin color, hair, head structure, etc.), do the ideologists of racism ignore the main features of the biological and physiological structure of a person (brain functions, nervous system, psychological organization, etc.)? which are the same for all people.

Modern racism is a product of the capitalist era. It has its own backstory, going back into the past of humanity. The idea of ​​the innate inferiority of individual human groups, which forms the essence of modern racist ideas, arose already in the most ancient class societies, although it was expressed in a different form than in the 20th century. Thus, in Ancient Egypt, social inequality between slaves and their owners was explained by belonging to different breeds of people. In Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome it was believed that slaves, as a rule, possess only brute physical strength, in contrast to masters, endowed with highly developed intellect. In the Middle Ages, feudal lords cultivated views about the “blood” superiority of the nobles over the mob, and the concepts of “blue blood”, “white” and “black bone” were widely used.

Already in the 16th century. The Spanish conquerors of America, to justify barbaric cruelty towards the Indians, put forward a “theory” about the inferiority of the “redskins,” who were declared an “inferior race.” Racist theories justified aggression, the seizure of foreign territories, and the ruthless extermination of the peoples of colonies and dependent countries. Racism emerged as the most important ideological weapon in the struggle against conquered peoples. The military-technical and organizational-political advantage of European countries and the United States led to the emergence of a sense of superiority among the colonialists over the enslaved peoples, representatives of the Negroid or Mongoloid race, most often it took the form of racial superiority. As for Africans, it was only at the end of the 18th century. - at the beginning of the 19th century, when there was a struggle to ban the slave trade, a theory was created about their inferiority compared to Europeans. It was needed by supporters of slavery and the slave trade in order to justify the legality of the continued existence of the slave trade. Before this, Africans in general were not treated as an inferior race.

Theorists of racism put forward the position that mental qualities and a person’s character depend on the shape of the skull, in particular on the size of the head indicator. According to their theory, it turned out that the lower the head indicator, that is, the longer a person’s head, the more gifted, energetic, and vital he is, as a rule.

In 1853, the French aristocrat Count Joseph Arthur Gobineau, a diplomat and publicist, published the book “An Essay on the Inequality of Human Races.” He tried to establish a kind of hierarchy of peoples inhabiting our planet. Gobineau considered the “black” race to be the lowest, the “yellow” to be somewhat more developed, and the “white” race to be the highest and the only one capable of progress, especially its elite - the Aryan, fair-haired and blue-eyed. Among the Aryans, Gobineau put the Germans in first place. They, in his opinion, created the real glory of Rome, a number of states in the new Europe, including Rus'. Gobineau's theory, which identified races and linguistic groups, became the basis of many racist theories.

In the era of imperialism, a theory of the opposition between West and East was formed: the superiority of the peoples of Europe and North America and the backwardness of the countries of Asia and Africa, about the historical inevitability for the latter to be under the leadership of the “civilized West”. After the First World War, the “Nordic myth” gained popularity in Germany about the superiority over all other races of the northern, or “Nordic” race, supposedly genetically related to peoples speaking Germanic languages. During the years of Hitler's dictatorship in Germany, racism became the official ideology of fascism. The fascist doctrine became widespread in Italy, Hungary, Spain, France, the Netherlands and other countries. Racism justified wars of aggression and mass extermination of people. During the Second World War, Hitler's racists planned and began the destruction (genocide) of certain nations that, according to the racist theories of fascism, were considered inferior, for example, Jews and Poles.

Dispersal of a demonstration in Cape Town.

The equality of peoples and races was proclaimed and enshrined in UN documents. This is primarily the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948). After the defeat of fascism, racism was dealt a crushing blow.

UNESCO has repeatedly adopted declarations on race and racial prejudice. There are two historical varieties of racism: pre-bourgeois and bourgeois. The main forms of the first were biological racism (different peoples were contrasted based on their origin, appearance and structure) and feudal-clerical racism (the contrast was based on religious views). Under capitalism, bourgeois racism arises. These include: Anglo-Saxon (Great Britain), anti-Simetism, neo-Nazism, anti-white racism (“reverse racism”, negritude), communal racism, etc. Each of the above forms of racism can apply to representatives of all other races or have a strict focus in relation to a specific race. According to the degree and form of expression, racism can be open and crude, covered and subtle. Modern racism has many faces. Racists come out under different guises and put forward different agendas. Their views and beliefs range from “liberal” to fascist.

Specific manifestations of racism are also varied - from the lynching of American blacks to the creation by racist ideologists of sophisticated doctrines that “justify” the division of humanity into “superior” and “inferior” races. Segregation is one of the extreme forms of racial discrimination in bourgeois states; it limits a person’s rights based on race or nationality. Segregation is the policy of forcibly separating blacks, Africans, and “colored” people from whites. It persists in the United States, despite a formal ban, in the Commonwealth of Australia, where Aborigines are forced to live on reservations. Elements of segregation are currently evident in some countries Western Europe in relation to immigrant workers - Arabs, Turks, Africans, etc.

One form of racism is apartheid (apartheid; in Afrikaans - apartheid - separate living). Until recently, the apartheid policy was applied in South Africa and was the official ideology, way of thinking, behavior and action. The implementation of the apartheid policy began with the adoption of the Population Registration Act (1950), which periodically formalized the affiliation of every citizen of the country who had reached the age of 16 to one or another racial category. Each resident received a certificate that contained a description of his characteristics and indicated the so-called “ethnic” (more precisely, racial) group. An attempt was made to compile a register of the entire population of the country under the auspices of a social board for racial classification. By 1950, an act on group settlement was adopted. In accordance with it, the government had the right to declare any territory the area of ​​​​settlement of any one racial group. In 1959, an act granting Bantu independence (the Bantustan Bill) was adopted. which was the complete legal formalization of apartheid. Bantu stans, or “national fatherlands,” are created for each of the indigenous ethnic groups. Some of the Bantu camps were declared by Pretoria " independent states", although no country has officially recognized such independence.

The apartheid system deprived the black population of South Africa of all basic political rights and freedoms, including freedom of movement in their own country and the right to skilled labor, subjected them to all known types and forms of racial discrimination, and practically deprived them of access to education, culture, and medical care.

In the 2nd half of the 80s - early 90s. The South African government carried out a number of reforms aimed at weakening the apartheid regime. Laws that limited freedom of movement around the country (passes, migration control) were repealed, a single South African passport was introduced, the activities of black trade unions and interracial marriages were allowed, moreover, the so-called minor apartheid, that is, the manifestation of racism in everyday life and everyday life, disappeared.

South Africa was subject to UN-recommended boycotts and sanctions by both Third World countries and Western democracies. However, in 1989-1991. the situation has changed dramatically. In accordance with the reform course of Frederick de Klerk, the dismantling of the apartheid system began. Over a hundred laws that discriminated against people because of their skin color were repealed. The African National Congress (ANC), the oldest organization in South Africa (exists since 1912), played a huge role in the condemnation of apartheid by the international community. The ANC serves as the government's partner in preparing negotiations and a new constitution for the country. However, the ideology of racism is not losing ground and is now showing a tendency to intensify.