Over the past half century, archeology has experienced a colossal complication of material and research interests, but a corresponding complication of the system of concepts has not followed. In place of the concept “archaeological culture” a whole system of concepts should grow.
According to Klein, there must be groups of concepts corresponding to its different forms, differentiated aspectually:
- a) according to the main connection that formed the basis for the selection (chronological, territorial, stylistic, covariance, correlation, type-complex);
- b) in terms of the scope of components, their quantitative and qualitative assessment (the relationship between several types of decorations is one thing, and the main fractions: ceramics, metal, types of graves and dwellings, etc. are another - the question of cultures and options is connected with this);
- c) by type of distribution (whether it is continuous, a closed area or dispersed, with interpenetration into other areas);
- d) by the strength of conjugation (by the density of bonds) and by the intensity of originality, i.e. by the degree of difference from other similar associations; and so on.
It is also necessary to highlight and designate with special terms the permanent structural components general concept(Americans were more successful in this). One term should be used for the defining set of types (as a “focus” among the Americans), another - for each set of material in which this set of types is represented in a separate monument (with the Americans as a “component”). The third is for the group of complexes covered by this set of types (“cultural group” among the Germans). The fourth is for the entirety of the material of these complexes (“facies” in some schools). The fifth - for the area occupied by them (or areas: separately for settlements, burials, individual finds) and so on.
The need for such a multiplication of concepts is to some extent reflected in one feature of the inconsistency that reigns in the definitions of archaeological culture accumulated by science. The fact is that they differ not only in the selection criterion, but also in the choice of one or another basis for constructing the concept, i.e. that stands out according to this criterion. For some authors, archaeological culture is a set of types: “the sum... of cultural forms” (Blume), “certain types of remains”, “complex... of remains”, “types of products... together with the structural features of dwellings and graves” (Child), “system types” (Cher). Others have a set of monuments: “community of archaeological monuments” (Mongai), “unity of archaeological monuments” (Klein, Sorokin, Zakharchuk). Still others have territory: “the territory ... (of a cultural province) contains ... a cultural group” (Yan, also Kilian). The fourth group has a set of finds: “a certain complex of archaeological objects” (Foss), “complexes...of finds: (Mongayt). The fifth group has an indefinite community: “an association of archaeological phenomena” (Braichevsky). In essence, this is a spontaneous search for a system of concepts, which can be compared to an attempt to play a chord on a piano with one finger. The chord will be an expanded system of concepts.
As for the name of the archaeological culture, it must be said that the name of the culture is given according to the places where this or that settlement, burial ground, etc. was found.
For example, the Abamshevo culture is an archaeological culture of the Bronze Age of the second half of the 2nd millennium BC. e. on the territory of the European part of Russia from the Kaluga region to the south of Bashkortostan. The culture received its name from the name of the village of Abashevo (Chuvashia), where its mounds were first found in 1925.
Tagar culture is an archaeological culture of the Bronze and Iron Age (IX-III centuries BC), named after the toponym - Tagar Island on the river. Yenisei. The Tagar culture was replaced by the Tashtyk culture.
The Złota culture was first identified in archeology through excavations carried out since the 1920s in the area of the Złota commune (the smallest administrative unit of Poland in the Pinczow County of the Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship (in 1975-1998 - Kielecki) in Poland, near the city of Sandomierz The culture was named after the excavation site.
Archaeological culture- a term used to designate a community (complex) of similar archaeological sites dating back to the same time and distributed in a certain area.
1. Definition of the concept
Archaeological culture is a fundamental concept of archaeological science. On the one hand, it allows you to organize archaeological sources, localizing them in space and time, on the other hand, it builds a bridge between archaeological sources and their creators.
There is no doubt that behind archaeological cultures there are certain communities - individual peoples or groups of related peoples. This point is extremely important for ancient history dealing with the pre-literate period. “Mute” history seems to begin to speak, acquires a certain concreteness, and anonymous communities that left certain archaeological cultures receive, albeit conditionally, a name. Therefore, the identification of archaeological cultures forms the basis for solving a wide variety of problems of ancient history: economic methods, social structure, and the ethnocultural specifics of communities. Comparison of materials from various archaeological cultures makes it possible to reproduce, to a certain extent, the ethnogenesis of individual peoples, their economic connections, migration processes, etc.
The similarity of archaeological sites can be traced in various features, for example, in the shapes and decoration of dishes, decorations, house-building techniques and interior design of houses, funeral customs, etc. They began to talk about the spread of certain archaeological complexes within certain territories in the 19th century, to define such complexes, different terms were used: cultural group, cultural province, cultural area, simply culture, etc. The term “archaeological culture” is widely used in science at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. Since then, it has become the main one for identifying archaeological complexes. It was in the first half of the twentieth century that most archaeological cultures were identified.
2. Archaeological cultures
The names of archaeological cultures are conventional and have different nature, more often cultures are named by some distinctive feature:
Archaeological cultures, in terms of ethnicity, may include:
Individual elements of a culture can also be established as a result of the spread of ideas or the resettlement of the people who bear this culture. The study of the emergence, spread and disappearance of archaeological culture allows us to reconstruct the history of tribes and peoples in eras preceding the emergence of written sources.
3. Material culture
The term “material culture” provides, firstly, the significance of all physical objects of the environment for the people of a certain culture, and secondly, a complex of artifacts (TECHNOCOMPLEX), typical for a given socioculture and is an essential part of it cultural identity. People for the most part treat material objects as is customary in their culture, and researchers material culture study the connection between found objects and their meaning for the bearers of a given culture. In this sense, material culture is comparable to language, i.e. verbal culture, both - cultural phenomena. Archaeologists are trying to recreate general culture ancient communities, drawing conclusions about less permanent cultural characteristics based on the study of the remains of material culture.
See also
Sources
Literature
- Kudryavtseva N. On the issue of definitions of the concept of “archaeological culture”. In the book: Archeology and methods of historical reconstruction. K., 1985.
Archaeological culture is a collection of artifacts that belong to one specific area and era. It gets its name based on the distinctive features of the ornament used in a particular territory. The term “culture” in archeology is somewhat different from the generally accepted definition. It can only be used if scientists’ findings provide an idea of what kind of life people led several thousand years ago.
Archaeological cultures of Russia include several stages of development. Each of them passes from one to another. Taking into account the fact that the territory of the country is quite large, at the same time tribes belonging to different cultures, leading far from the same lifestyles, could live on it.
Middle Stone Age culture
In fact, there is no such concept as the archaeological culture of the Mesolithic. At this time, the tribes were not yet divided among themselves. People tried to survive, and it made no difference how they did it. Some gradually began to practice farming, some continued to hunt, and some tamed animals, setting the pace for modern cattle breeding. However, this period of time cannot be completely discarded, since it was this period that marked the beginning of the formation of many civilizations.
At this stage, the first types of archaeological cultures appeared. Scientists and archaeologists do not believe that they need to be separated so early. But the beginnings were laid. Each tribe moved away from its former relatives, separated according to various characteristics, be it a way of life, the ethnic side of the issue, or, for example, methods of burying deceased ancestors. But the stage under consideration should in no case be underestimated, because its study will help answer questions related to the emergence of subsequent cultures.
Trypillian civilization
The Trypillian archaeological culture dates back to the Chalcolithic (5-2 millennium BC). It received its name from the area where the first monuments were discovered. This happened in the village of Tripolie.
It is noteworthy that around the 18th century, excavations were carried out in Romania, during which the Cucuteni culture was discovered. It also received its name thanks to the village, near which artifacts related to it were found. Initially, it was believed that these two cultures differed from each other. This was the case until scientists compared the found objects and monuments. It turned out that the Cucutenians and Trypillians are the same people.
The discovered artifacts allowed scientists to come to the conclusion that the archaeological culture in question was the largest in Europe, its population at its peak exceeded 15 thousand people.
As for the life of this civilization, it took place in the same way as in other places during Towards the end of the period, people began to master clay, now it was used not only for domestic purposes, but also for decorative ones. It was used to make figurines and other pottery products.
Dolmens
The dolmen archaeological culture did not particularly affect the development of the tribes located in the territory modern Russia. It originated in India around the 10th millennium BC. e., but the peoples began their journeys to the west much later. This happened in the 3rd millennium BC. e., the dolmens were then divided into two parts. The first went towards the Caucasus, the second - to Africa, mainly to Egypt. On the territory of Russia at that time another civilization dominated, so the tribes could only complement cultural heritage. As for development in Egypt, it was here that they managed to fully open up.
This archaeological culture received its name from the Breton language, and translated means “stone table”. Despite the fact that its influence on Slavic territory was not high, the largest concentration of monuments is located near the Black Sea coast and in Krasnodar region. It is likely that other monuments simply did not survive to the present day.
An abundance of stone and bronze products was discovered at the dolmens; these materials were used not only for the production of tools and hunting, but also for jewelry. Many of them were found directly in graves. By the way, they were also called dolmens, like the tribes themselves. These burial places looked like Egyptian pyramids. Most researchers accept the possibility that some dolmens were erected for religious or cultural purposes, rather than funeral ones. This is due to the fact that the buildings themselves were often older than the remains found in them. Thus, it is likely that it was the dolmen civilization that laid the foundation for the pyramids that have survived and amaze many to this day.
Catacomb culture
The Catacomb archaeological culture came to Slavic territory from the east and was first discovered in the 19th century. Its appearance and flourishing date back to the early Bronze Age. Some sources claim that the appearance of the catacomb tribes is generally oriented towards the Copper Age. In a word, it has not yet been possible to indicate the exact date of the origin of the culture.
The tribes did not advance further than the European border, so their influence on the development of neighboring civilizations is only superficial. This archaeological culture received its name due to the method of burial, which had huge amount differences. For example, if we compare the Catacomb and Yamnaya tribes, then for the latter it was enough to dig a small hole for a funeral. The burial depth of the first ones was located at the level of 3-5 meters. Moreover, these mounds often had several branches; they went deep or simply to the sides. It is believed that either people from the same family or those of the same rank or status were buried in such catacombs.
The household appliances of the catacomb tribes were also quite different. Firstly, they had almost no flat bottom. However, this can be explained by the fact that the tribes had not yet understood the convenience of such production or they did not have such an opportunity. Secondly, all the dishes had squat shapes. Even if you pick up a jug, its height is very small. There was also a primitive ornament. Like all tribes of that time, it was made using cord impressions. Only the upper part of the product was decorated.
The tools were made mainly of flint. This material was used in the production of arrowheads, knives, daggers, and so on. Some skilled craftsmen Tribes used wood to make utensils. Bronze was used only for the production of jewelry.
Russian culture in the Bronze Age
Unfortunately, archaeological culture in Russia was not able to reach its peak, but in general development this large-scale period cannot be ignored. It dates back to the 4th-3rd millennium BC. e. The Russians of that time were engaged in agriculture. IN to a greater extent forest cultivation predominated, but gradually people began to master the cultivation of less fertile lands.
There is also a slight increase in the construction of houses. If previously settlements erected housing buildings only in the valleys, now they are moving to the hills. Primitive fortification of houses also begins.
The early archaeological culture of the Bronze Age is distinguished by Maikop settlements. The later one is divided into several different complexes. The most extensive in terms of territories occupied are the Srubnaya and Andronovo cultures.
Maykop culture
The Maykop archaeological culture dates back to the early Bronze Age; it existed in the 3rd millennium BC. e. on the territory of the North Caucasus. From the monuments and artifacts found, we can conclude that the population was engaged in livestock breeding and agriculture. The culture originated in the north-west and center of the Caucasus. Distinctive feature tribes is archaic in the production of tools and household items. However, despite the outdated appearance of these products, civilization gradually developed. In addition, it was in no way inferior to other territories with more modern tools for that time.
Also thanks to this, we can conclude that the Maykop archaeological culture during its heyday did not limit its territorial affiliation only Northern Caucasus. There are traces of it in Chechnya, on the Taman Peninsula, all the way to Dagestan and Georgia. By the way, on the borders with these areas there are two different cultures(Kuro-Araks and Maikop) meet, their intertwining is observed. Before the border finds, scientists believed that the stages in question took place in different times. And so far there is no rational explanation for the mixing of cultures.
Log culture
The log archaeological culture dates back to the 2nd-1st millennia BC. e. The territory of the tribes in question was quite wide, it extended from the Dnieper region to the Urals, from the Kama region to the shores of the Black and Caspian seas. It got its name due to the abundance of log structures. Funeral rites and burial grounds, over which log houses were usually erected, also did not go unnoticed.
Tribal settlements were located directly next to rivers, usually on cape terraces. They were often fortified with ditches and ramparts. The buildings themselves were not fortified, but with good external protection this was not necessary. As indicated, all buildings were made of wood, sometimes the construction was supplemented with clay mixtures.
The Srubnaya archaeological culture, like many others, was distinguished by its burial methods. Unlike their predecessors, tribes saw off the dead individually, and mass graves are extremely rare. Burials were made in groups, with 10-15 mounds in one place. Available characteristic feature The position of the dead is on their side, with their head to the north. Some burials include cremated dead as well as dismembered ones. These could be either tribal leaders or criminals.
During the Srubna culture, thick, flat-bottomed dishes were used. At first they tried to decorate it with ornaments. Later they made ordinary pots or vessels. If there was an ornament, it was jagged or smooth. General feature Any decoration of dishes has a predominance of geometric shapes. Incomprehensible signs, which most researchers attribute to primitive writing, were rarely encountered.
At first, all tools were made of flint and bronze, but at a later stage the addition of iron was noted. Economic activity was cattle breeding, but farming was more common.
Andronovo culture
The Andronovo archaeological culture got its name due to the place where the first finds related to it were discovered. This period dates back to the 2nd-1st millennia BC. e. The tribes lived around Andronovo (Krasnoyarsk Territory).
Cattle breeding is considered to be a distinctive feature of the culture. People bred white-footed sheep, hardy horses and heavy-weight bulls. Thanks to these animals, they were able to develop quickly. Some scientists suggest that the Andronovo people reached the territory of India and laid the beginnings of their own civilization there.
Initially, the Andronovites lived in the Trans-Urals, then they moved to Siberia, from where some of them continued their journey towards Kazakhstan. Until now, despite the abundance of various finds and artifacts, scientists cannot determine why the tribes decided on such a large-scale migration.
If we compare all the archaeological cultures of Russia living in the Bronze Age, then it was the Andronovo people who became the most militant. They created chariots and could strike squads or even full-fledged settlements faster than anyone else. This is probably what explains migration, because in pursuit of better life they tried to discover more comfortable lands. And if necessary, conquer them.
Yamnaya culture
At the end of the Bronze Age, the Yamnaya archaeological culture came into force. The tribes in question come to the territory of Russia from the east, and their distinctive feature- early cattle breeding. Many nations began to develop with agriculture, but these immediately moved on to animal breeding. The culture got its name because of the burial pits. They were simple and primitive, but that was what distinguished them.
On at the moment The Yamnaya archaeological culture is the most studied. The mounds were located on the tops of the plateau; they tried to be as far away from the rivers as possible. It is likely that the settlement was once flooded during a flood, so people became more careful. Burials were rarely discovered directly near rivers. All graves were located along the stream, in small groups (about 5 dead). The distance from one burial to another could be completely different, from 50 to 500 meters.
The Yamnaya tribes made household appliances from clay. As in the previous era, these were flat-bottomed vessels different sizes. There were huge amphorae, in which cereals and liquids were presumably stored, as well as small pots. The ornaments were applied to the dishes using strong cords, and their imprints made up the entire decor.
Flint was used to make arrowheads, axes and other tools. It should be noted that the holes were not dug by humans by hand; primitive drilling installations were created, which were weighted with stones if the ground was hard.
The tribes also used wood in production; from it they made structures that were quite complex for that time. These were stretchers, sleighs, boats and small carts.
During the study, all scientists noted the originality of the Yamnaya culture; the tribes treated the bodies of the dead responsibly, so not only material, but also spiritual values were attributed to them. Moreover, these nationalities spread their influence to neighboring settlements.
It is likely that chariots were not originally produced for conquest purposes. Since the Andronovo people, like many other cultures, were pastoralists, such primitive machines should have helped them in herding animals. Later, the tribes discovered the productivity of chariots in the military sphere, which they immediately took advantage of.
Imenkovskaya culture
The Imenkovo archaeological culture dates back to early Middle Ages(4th-7th centuries). It was located on the territory of modern Tatarstan, Samara and Ulyanovsk regions. There are also genetic connections with other cultures that were in the neighborhood.
After the Bulgars came to the cultural territory, most of the Imenkovites went west. After some time they switched to new stage development - laid the foundation for the Volyntsevo people. The remainder mixed with the population and over time lost all their cultural accumulations and knowledge.
Imenkovo archaeological culture occupies a special place in the development Slavic people. It was the tribes in question who were the first to practice arable farming. During this process, they used primitive plows with metal tips attached to them. In addition, during the harvesting process, the Imenkovites also used relatively modern tools for that time - iron sickles and scythes. focused on dug storage pits, akin to modern cellars. The harvest was crushed manually using millstones.
The Imenkovites developed rapidly not only within their tribes. They had workshops where they smelted the mined metals; some rooms were intended specifically for artisans. They could produce dishes, plow points or, for example, sickles. Positive influence the tribes influenced neighboring settlements, offering them their knowledge, technologies of crafts, agriculture and cattle breeding. Therefore, the cultural heritage of the Imenkovites should not be underestimated not only by Russians, but also by neighboring countries.
As you can see, many archaeological cultures of the Slavs came to the territory of modern Russia from the east or west. In the first case, people learned new forms and features of agriculture and mastered cattle breeding skills. Western tribes helped in the development of hunting weapons and military vehicles. One thing is certain - every new culture made an enormous contribution to the general mental advancement of entire nations, regardless of what particular innovations it bestowed.
There is a fundamental system of archeological concepts used to classify finds and determine the essence of this science as a special source historical discipline: “sign” - “type” - “archaeological culture”. Archaeological culture is the highest level of archaeological classification. It is understood as a group of archaeological monuments, united according to a number of significant characteristics. The main ones are a unified chronology, the localization of monuments in a limited area, as well as the similarity of the types of ancient objects (tools, ceramics, jewelry) and structures (burials, remains of dwellings) that were discovered during excavations.
To date, one and a half dozen archaeological cultures have been identified on the territory of Karelia - partly simultaneous, partly replacing each other. The borders of these cultures in most cases extend beyond the administrative boundaries of modern Karelia. They received their names either based on geographical characteristics (area), or on the basis of the first studied monument, or characteristic ornamentation, technology for making ceramic ware, and for later eras - according to the known ethnic group of the culture bearers. The Mesolithic is characterized by the Obiezh culture and the cultural grouping of Mesolithic monuments in northern Karelia. Neolithic - Säräisniemi I culture, Sperrings culture, Pit-Comb Ware culture and Pit-Comb Ware culture. Eneolithic - by the culture of rhombic-pit ceramics and the culture of asbestos ceramics. Bronze Age - culture of reticulate ceramics. Iron Age - Late Kargopol culture, Duukon-Saari culture, Late White Sea and Arctic cultures. The Middle Ages are characterized by the Ladoga cultures of the ancient Vepsians and Karelians, as well as the Sami fishing cultures in the White Sea region and in the Lake Onega basin and the culture of late medieval peasant settlements that replaced them.
The table below shows the chronological relationship of the listed archaeological cultures, eras, as well as periods of the post-glacial era - Holocene 3.
Archaeological era
Middle Ages (mid-1st millennium AD - 16th century):
Cultures:
Medieval rural settlements(XIV-XVI centuries).
Ancient Sami fishing settlements (X-XI centuries).
Ancient Vepsian barrow culture (X-XII centuries).
Ancient Karelian culture (VI-XIV centuries)
Iron Age (V century BC - V century AD):
Cultures:
Late Kargopol culture. Luukonsaari culture.
Late White Sea culture. Arctic culture
Bronze Age (mid 2nd - mid 1st millennium BC):
Culture:
Reticulate Ware Culture (mid 2nd - mid 1st millennium BC)
Chalcolithic (3rd-2nd millennium BC):
Cultures:
Culture of asbestos ceramics (mid 3rd - mid 2nd millennium BC).
Culture of Rhombo-pit ceramics (beginning of the 3rd - turn of the 3rd-2nd millennium BC)
Neolithic (mid 5th - late 3rd millennium BC):
Cultures:
Culture of comb-pit ceramics (late 4th - late 3rd millennium BC). Culture of pit-comb ceramics (beginning of the 4th - turn of the 4th-3rd millennium BC).
Culture of Säräisniemi I (end of the 5th - second half of the 4th millennium BC).
Sperrings culture (mid 5th - mid 4th millennium BC)
Mesolithic (7th millennium BC - mid-5th millennium BC):
Obonezh culture (early 7th - mid 5th millennium BC). Culture of the northern Mesolithic of Karelia (second half of the 7th - mid-5th millennium BC)
In archaeological research on the territory of Karelia, a number of successive stages can be distinguished. The beginning of the first of them dates back to mid-19th V. and is associated with the accumulation of the first information about the antiquities of Karelia. It was then that the first accidentally found ancient objects entered museums and private collections. An important achievement of this period was the discovery of petroglyphs of Lake Onega, made by geologist from St. Petersburg V. I. Greving and teacher from Petrozavodsk P. G. Shved.
The second stage, characterized by the beginning of a targeted study of the ancient history of Karelia based on archaeological data, dates back to the 20s - early 50s. XX century It is associated with the activities of scientists from Moscow and Leningrad A. Ya. Bryusov, V. I. Ravdonikas, N. N. Gurina and others, as well as an employee of the Karelian Research Institute A. M. Linevsky, who, while still a student, discovered the Bely petroglyphs seas. Carrying out systematic field research made it possible to obtain material for the first scientific generalizations. A series of fundamental works was published, among which special mention should be made of the two-volume edition “Rock Carvings of Lake Onega and the White Sea” by V. I. Ravdonikas (1936, 1938), the book by A. M. Linevsky “Petroglyphs of Karelia” (1939), the work of A. Y. Bryusov “History of Ancient Karelia” (1940). Somewhat later, N. N. Gurina’s monographs “Oleneoostrovsky burial ground” (1956) and “ Ancient history North-West of the European Part of the USSR" (1961), which summarized the results of field archaeological work in Karelia in the 30-50s. XX century
Late 50's - 60's. can be defined as the beginning of the third stage in the study of the archeology of Karelia. From this time on, the formation of a local archaeological school began, the founder of which was G. A. Pankrushev. Formation of local archaeological personnel, creation of an archeology sector at the Institute of Language, Literature and History of the Karelian Branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences (now Karelian science center RAS) led to an increase in the volume of field archaeological work, the accumulation of new materials, which were summarized in a number of studies. In the 70-80s. works by G. A. Pankrushev, books by Yu. A. Savvateev, which contain publications and analysis of petroglyphs and sites in the lower reaches of the Vyg River, studies by S. I. Kochkurkina on medieval monuments of the Karelians and Vepsians, as well as several thematic collections dedicated to the publication new materials on ancient and medieval archeology of Karelia.
-
At the same time late XIX- beginning of the 20th century marked by a number of achievements in the development of theoretical archeology: the discovery of new archaeological crops... -
Archaeological periodization - dividing the history of mankind into large, essentially
Dnieper-Donetsk, Upper Volga, Lyalovo, Volosovo, Narva culture. -
Archaeological periodization and chronology. Archaeological periodization is the division of human history into large eras that differ significantly from each other. -
The first systematic archaeological work in Egypt.
He came to the conclusion that there is a high culture the Bronze Age and its independent... -
All this is used to create a complete and described sequence of strata within archaeological culture.
