Sculpture Sculpture
(Latin sculptura, from sculpo - carve, cut out), sculpture, plastic (Greek plastika, from plasso - sculpt), a type of fine art based on the principle of a three-dimensional, physically three-dimensional image. As a rule, the object of the image in sculpture is a person, less often - animals ( animalistic genre), even less often - nature (landscape) and things (still life). The placement of a figure in space, the transmission of its movement, posture, gesture, light and shadow modeling, which enhances the relief of the form, the texture of the sculpt or the processing of the material, the architectural organization of the volume, the visual effect of its mass, weight relations, the choice of proportions, the specific nature of the silhouette in each case are the main expressive factors. by means of sculpture. A volumetric sculptural form is built in real space according to the laws of harmony, rhythm, balance, interaction with the surrounding architectural or natural environment and on the basis of the anatomical (structural) features of a particular model.
There are two main types of sculpture: round (statue, sculptural group, figurine, torso, bust, etc.), which is freely placed in space and usually requires an all-round view, and relief, where the image is located on a plane that forms its background.
According to the content and functions, sculpture is divided into monumental, monumental-decorative, easel and so-called small-form sculpture. Developing in close interaction, these types of sculpture have their own characteristics. Monumental and monumental-decorative sculpture is designed for a specific architectural, spatial or natural environment and is addressed to masses of spectators, placed primarily in public places - on the streets and squares of the city, in parks, on the facades and interiors of public buildings. It is designed to concretize the architectural image and complement the expressiveness architectural forms new shades ( cm. Synthesis of arts), is capable of solving large ideological and imaginative problems, which is revealed with particular completeness in city monuments, monuments, memorial buildings, which are usually characterized by the majesty of forms and durability of the material, the elevation of the figurative structure, and the breadth of generalization. Easel sculpture, which is not directly related to architecture, is more intimate in nature and is usually placed in exhibition halls, museums, and residential interiors. This determines the features of the plastic language of sculpture, its dimensions, and favorite genres (portrait, everyday genre, nude, animalistic genre). Easel sculpture, to a greater extent than monumental sculpture, is characterized by interest in the inner world of man, subtle psychologism, and narrative. Sculpture of small forms includes a wide range of works intended primarily for residential interiors, and in many ways is closely related to decorative and applied arts. Small-form sculpture also includes works of medal art and glyptics. The purpose and content of a sculptural work determine the nature of its plastic structure, and it, in turn, influences the choice of sculptural material. The technique of sculpture largely depends on the natural features and methods of processing the latter. Soft substances (clay, wax, plasticine, etc.) are used for modeling. Solid substances (various types of stone, wood, etc.) are processed by chopping (carving) or carving, removing unnecessary parts of the material and gradually revealing the volumetric form hidden in it. Substances that can pass from a liquid to a solid state (various metals, gypsum, concrete, plastic, etc.) are used to cast sculptures using specially made molds. To reproduce a sculpture in metal, they also resort to galvanoplasty (obtaining exact copies electrochemical method). In its unmolten form, the metal in sculpture is processed through forging, embossing, welding and cutting. To create a ceramic sculpture, special types of clay are used, which are usually covered with painting or colored glaze and fired in special kilns. Color has been used in sculpture since ancient times: painted sculpture of antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Renaissance is well known. Turning to polychrome in sculpture or moving away from it to monochromatic tint, tinting and the natural color of the material is associated with the general direction of the development of art in a given country and in a given era. The emergence of sculpture, dating back to the primitive era, is directly related to human labor activity and magical beliefs. In Paleolithic sites (Montespan in France, Willendorf in Austria, Malta and Buret in the USSR) images of animals and women - the ancestors of the clan - were discovered, distinguished by the sharpness of life observations with the generality and roughness of the forms. Neolithic sculpture (round, usually small in size) was carved from soft stones, bone and wood; reliefs were executed on stone plates and cave walls; schematization of forms dominated in the images of figures. Sculpture often served as a means of decorating utensils, tools of labor and hunting, and was used as amulets. Sculpture received further development during the period of decomposition of the primitive communal system, in connection with the growth of the division of labor and technological progress; The brightest monuments of this stage are golden reliefs of the Scythians, terracotta heads of the Nok culture, typologically diverse wooden carved sculpture of the peoples of Oceania.
In the art of slave-owning society, sculpture stood out as a special type of activity, having specific tasks and its own masters. The sculpture of ancient Eastern states, which had ritual and magical significance, served to perpetuate a strict social hierarchy, the power of gods and kings, which was established in works that were grandiose in scale and laconic and strict in style. In sculpture Ancient Egypt, distinguished by a unique system of conventional depiction of the human figure - a canon, sphinxes, majestic statues of pharaohs, portraits of nobles, summed up by volume, preserved the idea of the original block of material. In the sculpture of other ancient Eastern despotisms that developed in similar ways (Sumer, Akkad, Babylonia, Assyria), the distinctive features were the brightness of coloring (Sumer), the introduction of numerous details into the relief, including landscape elements (Assyria).
The sculpture of Ancient Greece has a different, humanistic character and partly Ancient Rome, addressed to the mass of free citizens and in many ways being a plastic materialization ancient mythology. In the images of gods and heroes, athletes and warriors, the sculptors of Ancient Greece embodied the ideal of a harmoniously developed personality and affirmed their ethical and aesthetic ideas. The holistic, plastically generalized, but somewhat constrained sculpture of the archaic period was replaced by one based on exact knowledge anatomy, free positioning of a figure in space, classical sculpture, which produced such great masters as Myron, Phidias, Polykleitos, Scopas, Praxiteles, Lysippos. Their humanistic essence was revealed most fully in their work. greek sculpture: affirmation of the significance of the human personality, the plastic beauty of the human body, combined with the ideal generalization of the image. In Hellenistic art, the balance and harmony of classical sculpture are replaced by drama, pathetic passion, intensity of images and external showiness of forms. The realism of ancient Roman sculpture was especially fully revealed in the art of portraiture, which amazes with the sharpness of individual and social depiction of characters. Reliefs with historical and narrative subjects were developed, decorating triumphal columns and arches; a type of equestrian monument developed (the statue of Marcus Aurelius, later installed by Michelangelo on the Capitoline Square in Rome).
The Christian religion as the main form of worldview largely determined the character of European medieval sculpture. As a necessary link, sculpture enters into the architectural fabric of Romanesque cathedrals, subordinated to the harsh solemnity of their tectonic structure. In Gothic art, where reliefs and statues of apostles, prophets, saints, fantastic creatures, and sometimes idealized images of real persons literally fill the portals of cathedrals, galleries of the upper tiers, niches of turrets and projections of cornices, sculpture plays a particularly noticeable role. It seems to “humanize” architecture, enhancing its spiritual richness. In Ancient Rus', the art of relief reached a high level (Kyiv slate reliefs, stone carved decoration of temples of the Vladimir-Suzdal school). In the Middle Ages, sculpture developed widely in the countries of the Middle and Far East; The world artistic significance of sculpture from India, Indonesia, and Indochina is especially great, monumental in nature, combining the power of constructing volumes with the sensual sophistication of modeling.
In the XII-XVI centuries. Western European sculpture, gradually freeing itself from religious and mystical content, moves on to a more direct depiction of life. Earlier than in the sculpture of other countries, in the second half of the 13th - early 14th centuries. new realistic trends appeared in Northern Italy (Niccolò Pisano and others), in the 15th-16th centuries. Italian sculpture, based on ancient tradition, increasingly gravitates towards the expression of the ideals of Renaissance humanism ( cm. Renaissance). The embodiment of bright human characters imbued with the spirit of life affirmation, becomes its main task (the works of Donatello, Jacopo della Quercia, A. Verrocchio). An important step forward was made in the creation of free-standing (i.e., relatively independent of architecture) statues, in solving the problems of placing monuments in the urban ensemble, and multifaceted relief. The technique of bronze casting and embossing is being improved, and the majolica technique is being used. One of the pinnacles of Renaissance art were the sculptural works of Michelangelo, full of titanic power and intense drama. Mannerist sculptors (B. Cellini and others) were distinguished by a predominant interest in decorative tasks. Among the Renaissance sculptors in other countries, Klaus Sluter (Burgundy), J. Goujon and J. Pilon (France), M. Lacher (Austria), A. Kraft, F. Stoss and T. Riemenschneider (Germany) stand out.
In Baroque sculpture, Renaissance harmony and clarity give way to the elements of changeable forms, emphatically dynamic, often filled with solemn pomp. Decorative trends are growing rapidly: sculpture is literally intertwined with the architecture of churches, palaces, fountains, and parks. During the Baroque era, numerous ceremonial portraits and monuments were also created. The largest representatives of Baroque sculpture are L. Bernini in Italy, A. Schlüter in Germany, P. Luger in France, where classicism developed in close connection with the Baroque (features of both styles were intertwined in the works of F. Girardon, A. Coisevoux, etc.). The principles of classicism, rethought during the Enlightenment, played an important role in the development of Western European sculpture in the second half of the 18th - first third of the 19th centuries, in which, along with historical, mythological and allegorical themes (A. Canova in Italy, B. Thorvaldsen in Denmark), a large The portrait acquired significance (J.B. Pigalle, E.M. Falconet, J.A. Houdon in France). Emotional tension and the search for new means of expression are characteristic of the sculpture of the Romantic era (P. J. David d'Angers, A. L. Bari, F. Rude in France).
In Russian sculpture from the beginning of the 18th century. a transition is taking place from medieval religious forms to secular ones; Developing in line with pan-European styles - Baroque and Classicism, it combines the pathos of establishing a new statehood, and then educational civil ideals with an awareness of the plastic beauty of the real world. The monument to Peter I in St. Petersburg by Falcone became a symbol of Russia’s new historical aspirations. Excellent examples of park monumental and decorative sculpture, wooden carvings, and ceremonial portraits appeared already in the first half of the 18th century. (B.K. Rastrelli and others). In the second half of the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries. An academic school of Russian sculpture is emerging, represented by a galaxy of outstanding masters. Patriotic pathos, majesty and classical clarity of images characterize the work of F. I. Shubin, M. I. Kozlovsky, F. F. Shchedrin, I. P. Martos, V. I. Demut-Malinovsky, F. P. Tolstoy, S. S. Pimenova. A close connection with architecture, an equal position in synthesis with it, a generalized figurative structure are typical for the sculpture of Russian classicism. In the 1830-40s. In Russian sculpture, the desire for historical specificity of the image (B. I. Orlovsky) and genre specificity (P. K. Klodt, N. S. Pimenov) is increasingly being abandoned.
In the second half of the 19th century. Russian and Western European sculpture reflects the general process of democratization of art. Classicism, which is now degenerating into salon art, is opposed realistic direction (cm. Realism) with its openly expressed social orientation, recognition everyday life, worthy of the artist’s attention, addressing the theme of labor, problems of public morality (J. Dalou in France, C. Meunier in Belgium, etc.). Realistic Russian sculpture develops under the strong influence of the paintings of the Wanderers. The depth of reflection characteristic of the latter historical destinies The homeland is also distinguished by the sculptural creativity of M. M. Antokolsky. The sculpture contains themes taken from modern life, peasant theme (F. F. Kamensky, M. A. Chizhov, S. O. Ivanov), which, however, suffer from excessive naturalism and earthiness of images, and sometimes sentimentality.
In the art of the second half of the 19th century. the collapse of the synthesis of architecture and art began, the decline of monumental-decorative and monumental sculpture; Various naturalistic movements spread. Attempts to overcome the crisis of sculpture have emerged in late XIX- the beginning of the 20th century, when, within the framework of the Art Nouveau style, the desire for a synthesis of arts was again revived, in which sculpture (especially associated with the interior, the design of facades, i.e. relief, easel and decorative sculpture) occupies an important place. The development of sculpture of this time is influenced by contemporary artistic movements (impressionism, symbolism); it is widely based on the traditions of the past (Greek archaic, classic, Renaissance). Closely connected with the study of nature and reflecting the contradictory nature of his era, the plastic arts of O. Rodin, who created works that are vivid in their emotional impact and significant in their ideological concept, have a powerful impact on all national schools. Partly under the influence of Rodin, the work of the greatest masters of French sculpture of the 20th century took shape. - E. A. Bourdelle, A. Maillol, C. Despiot. The most significant representatives of this type of art in other countries in the first half of the 20th century. there were E. Barlach (in Germany), I. Meštrović (in Croatia). Various directions of Russian sculpture of this period are expressed by S. M. Volnukhin, I. Ya. Ginzburg, P. P. Trubetskoy, A. S. Golubkina, S. T. Konenkov, A. T. Matveev, N. A. Andreev. In sculpture, the plastic expressiveness of forms acquires primary importance (M. Rosso in Italy, A. Giacometti in Switzerland, G. Kolbe in Germany).
In the 20th century The development of sculpture takes on a contradictory character. Experimentalism of modernist painting movements of the 20th century. penetrated into the sculpture; The influence of cubism was especially strong (P. Picasso, A. P. Archipenko, A. Laurent), which led to the inclusion of a wide variety of non-traditional materials in sculpture works. Representatives of constructivism were N. Gabo, A. Pevzner, surrealism - X. Arp, abstract art - A. Calder and others. Dadaists (M. Duchamp), and after them pop art artists introduced the principle of transforming an ordinary object into works of sculpture, so called object, denying the meaning of artistic and plastic form. Decorative forms created from the latest materials (I. Noguchi, USA) or giant stylized figures of people (G. Moore, Great Britain) fit into the modern urban environment.
Modernist trends are consistently opposed by Soviet sculpture, developing along the path socialist realism. Its formation is inseparable from Lenin’s plan of monumental propaganda, on the basis of which the first revolutionary monuments and memorial plaques, and subsequently many significant works of monumental sculpture, were created. In the monuments of the 20-30s. (sculptors A. T. Matveev, S. D. Merkurov, B. D. Korolev, M. G. Manizer and others), in monumental and decorative sculpture that adorned large public buildings, metro stations, all-Union and international exhibitions (" Worker and Collective Farm Woman" by V.I. Mukhina and others), the socialist worldview was clearly manifested, the principles of nationality and partisanship of art were realized. Central in sculpture of the 20-30s. become the theme of revolution (Matveev and others), the image of a participant in revolutionary events, a builder of socialism. In easel sculpture, a large place is occupied by a portrait (Andreev, Golubkina, S. D. Lebedeva, V. N. Domogatsky, etc.), as well as the image of a human fighter (I. D. Shadr, etc.), a warrior (L. V. . Sherwood), worker (G. I. Motovilov). Animalistic sculpture is developing (I. S. Efimov, V. A. Vatagin), sculpture of small forms is noticeably updated (V. V. Kuznetsov, N. Ya. Danko, etc.). During the Great Patriotic War 1941-45 the theme of the Motherland, Soviet patriotism came to the fore, embodied in portraits of heroes (Mukhin, Lebedeva, N.V. Tomsky), in intensely dramatic genre figures and groups (V.V. Lishev, E.F. Belashova and etc.). The tragic events and heroic achievements of the war years were especially clearly reflected in the sculpture of memorial buildings of the 40-70s. (E. V. Vuchetich, J. Mikenas, G. Jokubonis, L. V. Bukovsky, etc.). In the 40-80s. sculpture plays an active role as a decorative or spatial organizing component in the architecture of public buildings and ensembles, and is used in the creation of urban planning complexes, in which, along with numerous new monuments and monumental compositions (M.K. Anikushin, E.D. Amashukeli, V.Z. Borodai , L. E. Kerbel, A. P. Kibalnikov, O. K. Komov, Yu. G. Orekhov, T. Sadykov, V. E. Tsigal, Yu. L. Chernov, etc.) an important place belongs to gardening sculpture, sculptural design of residential areas, etc. A keen sense of modernity, the search for ways to update the plastic language are characteristic of easel sculpture of the second half of the 50-80s. (A.G. Pologova, L.M. Baranov, etc.). Common to many national schools of Soviet sculpture is the desire to embody character modern man- builder of communism, addressing the themes of friendship of peoples, the struggle for peace. The same tendencies are also inherent in the sculpture of other socialist countries, which has produced a number of major masters (K. Dunikowski in Poland, F. Kremer in the GDR, A. Avgustincic in Yugoslavia, J. Kisfaludi-Strobl in Hungary, etc.). In Western European sculpture, the reaction against fascism and war caused the activation of the most progressive forces and contributed to the creation of works imbued with high humanistic pathos (sculptors M. Mazakurati, G. Manzu in Italy, V. V. Aaltonen in Finland). The sculpture of leading artists promotes the progressive ideas of modernity, recreates historical and contemporary events with particular breadth, epicness and expression, while representatives of various modernist movements break the living connection with reality, moving away from actual life problems into the world of subjective fiction and formalistic experiments.
Enku (Japan). "Hermit". Tree. 17th century Kannonji Temple. Nagoya.
Michelangelo (Italy). "Night". Detail of the decoration of the New Sacristy (Medici Chapel) of the Church of San Lorenzo in Florence. Marble. 1520 - 1534.
A. Mayol (France). "Constricted movement." Bronze. Early 20th century Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York.
"Unbroken." Fragment memorial ensemble In memory of the victims of fascist terror in Salaspils (Latvian SSR). Concrete. 1967. Sculptors L. Bukovsky, J. Zarin, O. Skarainis.
Literature: G. I. Kepinov, Technology of sculpture, M., 1936; D. E. Arkin, Images of sculpture, M., 1961; M. Ya. Libman, On sculpture, M., 1962; A. S. Golubkina, A few words about the craft of a sculptor, M., 1963; I. M. Schmidt, Conversations about sculpture, M., 1963; S. S. Valerius, Progressive sculpture of the 20th century. Problems and trends, M., 1973; Landsberger F., Vom Wesen der Plastik. Ein kunstpädagogischer Versuch, W., 1924; Rich C., The materials and methods of sculpture, N. Y., 1947; Malraux A., Le musée imaginaire de la sculpture mondiale, (v. 1-3, P.), 1952-54; Read N. E., The art of sculpture, 2 ed., N. Y., 1961; Mills J. W., The technique of sculpture, L., (1965); Rogers L. R., Sculpture, L.-N. Y.-Oxf., 1969; Bazin G., The history of world sculpture, L., 1970; by him, Le monde de la sculpture des origine a nos jours, P., 1972; by him, A concise history of world sculpture, Newton Abbot, 1981; Albreht H. Y., Sculptur im 20. Jahrhundert, Köln, 1977, Wittkower R., Sculpture: processes and principles, L., 1977; Kotula A., Krakowski P., Rzezba wspotczesna, Warsz., 1980.
Source: "Popular" art encyclopedia." Ed. Polevoy V.M.; M.: Publishing house "Soviet Encyclopedia", 1986.)
sculptureSculpting, one of the types fine arts. Sculpture, unlike painting, has a real, not depicted, volume. There are two main types of sculpture: round sculpture and relief. A round statue “lives” in free space, you can walk around it from all sides, feel the rough or smooth surface with your hand, feel the roundness of the shape. The relief is similar three-dimensional drawing on a plane.
The main subject of the image in sculpture is a person. Only sometimes do masters depict animals and birds, inanimate objects. In round sculpture, unlike painting, it is very difficult to reproduce nature; it is impossible to convey the features of the airy atmosphere. However, sculptors are able to express in physical form any feelings and ideas - from lyrical and soulful to grandiose and majestic. The master does not strive to exactly copy the forms he sees in life. In sculpture, as in any work of art, it is necessary to select the most important, essential, remove unnecessary details, and, on the contrary, highlight, emphasize, exaggerate something. The sculptor does not copy, but creates, creates new uniform, based on knowledge of nature.
Any sculpture is very sensitive to lighting. It will look different in top and side light, in cloudy weather and in bright sun. Sculptors take this into account in their work. A sculptural work is created with a specific environment in mind: a street or city square, a museum hall, a park alley, a room in a house. The place where the sculpture will stand determines its size, the material from which it will be made, and the features of its shape.
Depending on its purpose, sculpture is divided into monumental and easel. Monumental sculpture is a monument erected in honor of a historical event or depicting outstanding person. They embody the ability of sculpture to express generalized images great ideas. Park sculpture serves to decorate the natural environment: the skillful hand of the sculptor seems to compete with nature in creating perfect forms. Figurines made on a machine are classified as easel sculpture. They are intended for small rooms, for museum halls.
All sculptural materials can be divided into soft (clay, plasticine, wax) and hard (stone, wood, ivory). Working with soft materials, the sculptor sculpts and increases the volume of the future statue. The oldest material for plastic art, known since primitive times, viscous and soft clay, takes any shape under the master’s fingers. Products made from baked clay are called terracotta (from Italian terra cotta - baked earth). Sculptures for tombs and temples have been carved from durable stone since ancient times. Hard rocks (granite, basalt, etc.) are difficult to process; it is impossible to cut out small parts in them. Therefore, in such works one can most strongly feel the solid stone block (sculpture of Ancient Egypt). Limestone is a softer stone. In the Middle Ages it was used for relief decorations portals cathedrals The ancient Greeks were the first to process marble: a shimmering, like a breathing stone, close in color to flesh-colored, well suited for statues of naked gods and heroes.
To the great sculptor of the Renaissance Michelangelo is credited with the famous saying that it is very simple to create a sculpture: you just need to take a stone and “remove everything unnecessary.” Indeed, a master working with hard materials “frees” the future sculpture “from the captivity” of the stone or wooden mass. To process stone, you need to have physical strength and a steady hand. One mistake and the work will be ruined. First, the largest pieces are chipped from the stone using a tongue and groove tool, which is similar to a large nail. Then they work with a trojan - a large cutter with a flat jagged end, which is used to smooth out roughness. With a scarpel, a smaller cutter, small details are cut out. Using a drill (special drill), holes are drilled (hair curls, eye pupils, etc.). Upon completion of the work, individual parts of the sculpture are polished to a shine.
Since time immemorial, sculptors have used wood. For thousands of years, it remained a favorite material of folk craftsmen, who made funny toys and small decorative figurines from it. Tools for working with wood are basically the same as for working with stone: various knives, cutters, saws and hammers. Although carving wood is easier than cutting stone, working with it has its own challenges. Wood can only be cut in the direction of the grain; The implementation of the plan may be hindered by some twig that “appeared” in the most inappropriate place. Finally, to prevent the wooden sculpture from drying out and cracking, the finished statue is separated into two parts, hollowed out from the inside, and then the halves are reconnected. Wood, like no other material, “suggests” the shape of the future work. The sculptor can turn a tangle of tree knots into the hands of a statue, the scattered roots of an old stump into the curved paws of a monster... Wood - a warm, “living” material - seems to fill the sculpture with a special organic force.
Metals stand out among the sculpture materials: bronze, copper, cast iron, gold. In the process of making a bronze (or other metal) sculpture, they first make a model of it from wax, plaster, clay, etc. The model is coated with plaster, resulting in a hollow detachable mold, into which molten metal is then poured.
It arose in ancient times and remains to this day a very popular decoration for cities, temples, as well as a way of self-expression for the master. Many of the sculptures are attractions themselves. There are many examples of world-famous sculptures, which are visited by millions of tourists every year.
Today there are different types sculptures, which will be discussed in this article.
Definition
Before you start talking about sculpture as an art form, you need to understand what it is and define the term. Sculpture is not just one of the types of fine art, but one of its most important elements, the main feature of which is that the works have a three-dimensional form made of solid or plastic materials.
Painting, graphics and sculpture are types of art that are very close in many ways. That is why many artists and painters were also excellent sculptors.
A little history
As mentioned above, sculpture arose in ancient times. The first figurines and small sculptures began to appear in the prehistoric period of the Stone Age. In those days, sculptures were used as religious idols.
Also, everyone knows the ancient sculptures, which are of enormous size, located on the island. Easter. There are still many rumors and legends surrounding them.
With the advent of the first ancient civilizations (Ancient Egypt, Sumer, Phenicia, etc.), sculptures became a more common attribute. They were not only a religious object, but also often became the decoration of large temples, palaces of rulers and the decoration of cities.
Sculpture as a form of fine art reached an incredible flowering in the ancient period. The ancient Greeks and Romans valued this craft very highly. They decorated their cities, houses and temples with sculptures, and their craftsmen were the best in the then known world.
In the early Middle Ages, there was some lull in this area, but by the end of this historical stage, sculpture began to develop with new strength. A particularly strong boom began during the Renaissance, when painting and sculpture experienced a real rise.
From the New Age to the present day, sculpture remains one of the most vibrant and sought-after forms of art.
Types of sculpture (classification)
There are several methods and principles by which sculpture is divided into varieties. If we divide them by genre, there are: portrait, symbolic, allegorical, historical and others.
Also distinguished are circular sculptures, which can be viewed from all sides, and relief ones (high relief, bas-relief, counter-relief), where only part of the figure has volume.
Sculpture can be divided into types according to the materials from which it is made, historical periods, geographical characteristics, etc. There are a lot of classifications.
Sculpture and architecture
Almost immediately, as civilizations began to emerge and large temple and palace buildings appeared, these two types of art began to merge into symbiosis. Architecture and sculpture are often components of a single object.
Moreover, their “cooperation” is expressed not only in the fact that sculptures are often used to decorate the interior of a building. Once you look at buildings in the Gothic or Baroque style, everything becomes clear. For example, remember the well-known Cathedral Notre Dame of Paris, which is completely dotted with various sculptures, not only bas-relief, but also circular.
And there are many such examples. IN modern architecture sculptures are no longer often used as decorations for buildings, but there are many structures that, although nominally buildings, are actually sculptures. An example is the Statue of Liberty, inside of which there is an observation deck (today entry is prohibited) and more.
Sculpture in the form of a human figure
People have always been interested in humanity, so it is not surprising that sculptors most often sought to capture the human figure, part of the body, or give their creation an anthropomorphic form. It was only in the 20th century that trends moving away from this principle began to appear more and more often.
The ancient Greeks, Romans and masters who worked during the Renaissance were considered the best masters depicting people. Among the famous creations is the sculpture "Laocoon and His Sons", made by the ancient Greek masters Agesander, Polydorus and Athenodorus. The work “The Dying Gaul” is also known, the author of which is considered to be Epigone, but there is no exact information about this.
Of course, there are many more examples. There are also more famous ones, but the fact remains: many sculptors today willingly create sculptures of people.
Modern stage
Today, extravagant styles and types of painting and sculpture are increasingly appearing, thanks to which new masters strive to attract attention and shock the public. However, thanks to this, the world of sculpture has become more diverse, interesting and modern.
Suffice it to recall the creations of the famous Colombian sculptor and artist Fernando Botero, whose works are now displayed in many major cities and capitals of the world. His “chubby pieces” created a real sensation in the art world.
Besides him, of course, there are other modern masters whose sculptures are extravagant, but at the same time something fresh and new in art. This is the main trend in Recent history humanity.
It's no secret that outstanding works of art are sold at art auctions for crazy amounts of money, but few people know that the most expensive sculpture was valued at 141 million 800 thousand US dollars. It is called "Pointing Man" and was created in 1947 by the famous sculptor Alberto Giacometti.
In addition to the fact that sculptures can be very expensive, they are sometimes very large. The tallest statue of Buddha Shakyamuni in Myanmar is considered to be the tallest in the world. Its height is about 130 meters, if you count the pedestal. Without it, it has a height of more than 115 meters.
Modern people are accustomed to seeing ancient sculptures in natural colors, but as recent studies have shown, the Greeks and Romans painted them with various colors, and quite brightly. It’s just that over time the paint faded in the sun and was erased under the influence of other natural phenomena.
Many ancient sculptures have reached our time with various kinds of flaws: chips, the absence of some parts, etc. Art critics, museums and master sculptors of the 19th-20th centuries initially tried to restore the missing parts on their own, but over time, after numerous restoration failures, people realized that that it is better not to restore works of antiquity, but to leave them in the form in which they were found.
Impact on culture
Whatever type of sculpture it is, it is still an object of art, and therefore has a direct influence on it. This is one of the strong means of self-expression, decoration of cities, interior, exterior, etc.
Since ancient times, sculptures have had a huge influence on art and culture in general, being part of them. They are still considered an important element in the life of mankind.
Many famous statues are now a symbol of a religion, a city, or even an entire country. Just remember the famous statue of Christ the Redeemer, which today not only symbolizes Rio de Janeiro, but the whole of Brazil.
Approximately the same can be said about the Statue of Liberty in New York or the Motherland statue in Volgograd. And there are a huge number of such examples. Almost every major city has its own remarkable sculpture or several.
In addition to the famous and symbolic statues, there are also ordinary city sculptures that do not represent great historical or cultural value, but were created solely to decorate city streets. Typically, they are made from inexpensive materials such as bronze, iron, etc.
In conclusion
Painting, graphics and sculpture are types of art that arose a long time ago, but still exist to this day. Moreover, interest in them does not decrease at all, and to some extent even increases.
IN modern society there are a large number of people interested in art, and the creations of old masters, as a rule, are under the protection of the state and society.
People have always liked to contemplate the beautiful, giving pleasure not only to the eyes, but also to the brain, giving it topics for reflection, so many sculptures do not just depict something, but demonstrate some kind of plot, idea and thought. Looking at such works of art, people involuntarily begin to think about what the author wanted to convey and convey to people.
Sculpture not only has not disappeared as an art form, but continues to actively develop even now. More and more new types, styles, materials, etc. are appearing. Sculptors from all over the world are trying their best to stand out and promote their creativity.
In a highly competitive environment, modern sculptors have to be more creative in their work or hobbies. This, according to many, is the engine of modern art in general, and not just sculpture.
The desire for beauty, expressed in art, is perhaps the only thing that distinguishes a person from an animal. Since ancient times, man has tried to create something beautiful, in between hunting and survival, building his caves. With the development of humanity, art also developed, which took on more and more new forms. One of the main types of fine art is sculpture. and what types of it exist - this article will tell you about it.
The main object of the sculpture is a person, although it can also depict animals or some other objects. Depending on what material is used, the appropriate processing methods are selected. This can be modeling, forging, chasing or casting.
Before we begin to consider any concept, we should give it a specific definition. What is sculpture and what are its characteristic features? The difficulty is that it is not so easy to answer this question unambiguously. However, we will try to figure it out.
Definition: “What is sculpture?” Variety of options
Any concept or phenomenon is interpreted differently. The reason for this is that each art critic looks at the problem from his own angle. Therefore, everyone develops their own meaning of the concept of “sculpture”. What sculpture is can be learned from various explanatory dictionaries.
According to Efremova’s explanatory dictionary, sculpture is the art of creating three-dimensional (relief) images using sculpting, cutting or casting.
In Ushakov’s explanatory dictionary you can find the following definition: “Sculpture is the art of making three-dimensional or convex images - statues, bas-reliefs, etc.”
However, it should be noted that all sources agree that sculpture is a special type of fine art. And there is certainly no doubt about this.
Sculpture. What is sculpture?
The term itself comes from the Latin word “sculptura”, which literally translates as “sculpting” or “carving”. By the way, the term “sculpting” is very often used as a synonym for the word “sculpture”.
A talented young artist described it very well: “this is an area of feelings associated with form.” The basis of any sculpture should be the form, ancient language which is accessible and understandable to anyone.
History of sculpture
The roots of this type of art go back to ancient times, in the Paleolithic era, and it was then that its first works appeared. Sculptures in the form of images of women or various animals found at the site of numerous Paleolithic sites in Western Europe are clear confirmation of this. During the Neolithic era, the variety of sculptural monuments expanded even more.
Of course, this type of art was most developed in the era of Ancient Greece. It is sculpture that becomes one of the main forms of expression of ancient Greek philosophy, which was based on the human personality - harmoniously developed both spiritually and physically. A countless number of statues of gods, mythical heroes and warriors were made by masters Ancient Hellas, for whom sculpture turned out to be their life’s work. What is sculpture in the understanding of the ancient Greek master? This is, first of all, flexibility, plasticity and organic form, based on the most precise anatomical details. Among such great masters are Phidias, Myron, Lysippos, Praxiteles and others.
Sculpture received a new round of development in the 15th-16th centuries, during the Renaissance, which was based on ancient traditions. Italy became the center of Renaissance sculpture; among the great sculptors of that time were Michelangelo, Donatello, Verrocchio and other creators.
Soviet ideologists also paid great attention to sculpture. It became an effective tool for promoting the ideas of Soviet socialism. The main feature of Soviet sculpture can be considered its monumentality. Majestic steles, massive monuments and thousands of monuments to communist leaders were left to us by Soviet sculpture.
In modern sculpture, it is not the image (object) that comes to the fore, but the choice of color, texture and material. It is color that becomes almost the main tool artistic expression in modern sculpture.
Main types of sculptures
The main types of sculpture include:
- round sculpture (actually, statues and busts);
- relief sculpture (bas-reliefs and high reliefs);
- easel sculpture;
Some specific types of this art are also highlighted: miniature ice, park and others. By genre, sculpture can be portrait, everyday, historical, or symbolic.
Sculpture making process
Making sculptures is not an easy task, requiring certain skills and painstaking work. As soon as the sculptor has an idea for a work, he begins its implementation by making a scaled-down model. Only when the model is completely ready can we move on to the sculpture itself.
To sculpt a statue you need a foundation and a steel frame. The artist then begins to cover this frame with clay until he has a sculpture that is close to his design in appearance. At the same time, he uses special tools for sculpting - stacks, as well as his own hands. It is important to ensure that the material is constantly moistened when sculpting so that it does not begin to crack.
When the sculpting is complete, the sculptor makes an exact cast of his creation from a material that is stronger than clay. After this, based on the cast, the sculpture can be made from any other material - stone, steel or bronze. It is worth noting that not a single great work of sculpture is complete without preliminary sculpting and making a cast. Although in the history of sculpture there were masters who worked directly with the source material. One of these was the great creator Michelangelo.
Sculpture as a decoration for parks
One of the types of sculpture is park sculpture, the traditions of which have a long history. It is difficult to imagine a beautiful park or city garden without sculptural decorations. The tradition of decorating gardens with sculptures was established by the ancient Greeks. It is difficult to imagine the gardens of Ancient Rome without sculptures of gods or courageous warriors.
In the 17th century, Venice became the center for the production of sculptures for parks and gardens. Notable people from Austria, Poland and Russia bought sculptures in whole batches for their personal parks. At that time, park sculpture became an important element in the decoration of St. Petersburg, which was under active construction. The most outstanding Venetian master can be called Pietro Baratta, whose creations can still be seen in the Summer Garden of St. Petersburg or in the Tsarskoe Selo nature reserve.
The so-called topiary sculpture is becoming especially popular in modern parks - this is the creation of real masterpieces from living plants - trees or bushes.
The world's most famous sculptures
Famous sculptures of the world have gained popularity due to their features. We present to your attention the five most famous sculptures in the world.
1. The most famous of the ancient sculptures is the statue of the goddess Aphrodite, also known as the Venus de Milo. The cult marble statue was made in the second century BC and has survived to this day. Today this two-meter sculpture can be seen in a special gallery of the Louvre.
2. The tallest sculpture is the statue of Buddha Vairochana in China (Henan Province). The total height of the monument is 158 meters; work on its construction was completed in 2002. The sculpture is made of cast copper, and the total cost of this project was approximately $55 million.
3. The most mysterious sculpture is the Moai sculpture on Easter Island. Scientists suggest that the statues are the work of ancient Polynesian craftsmen and vaguely date them to the first millennium AD.
4. The most patriotic sculpture is the world famous Statue of Liberty - a unique symbol of the American people. It is also the second tallest on the planet.
5. The most golden sculpture is the Buddha statue located in Thailand, in the Wat Traimit temple. The three-meter sculpture is unique in that it is made entirely of solid gold.
Sculpture, sculpture, plastic art (from Latin sculptura, from sculpo - I cut, carve) is a type of fine art, the works of which have a three-dimensional, three-dimensional form.
The sculpture can be made in any genre, the most common genres being figurative (portrait, historical, genre composition, nude, religious, mythological) and animalistic genre. The materials for making sculpture are varied: metal, stone, clay and baked clay (faience, porcelain, terracotta, majolica), plaster, wood, bone, etc. The methods for processing sculpture are also varied: casting, forging, chasing, carving, modeling, carving and etc.
There are two main types of plastic art: round sculpture (freely placed in space) and relief (three-dimensional images are located on a plane).
Round sculpture
Bypass is one of the most important conditions for the perception of round plasticity. The image of the sculpture is perceived differently from different viewing angles, and new impressions are born.
Round sculpture is divided into monumental, monumental-decorative, easel and small forms. Monumental and monumental-decorative sculpture are closely related to architecture.
Easel sculpture- a type of sculpture that has independent meaning, designed to be perceived at close range and not related to architecture and the object environment. Typically, the size of an easel sculpture is close to life-size. Easel sculpture is characterized by psychologism and storytelling, and symbolic and metaphorical language is often used. It includes various types sculptural composition: head, bust, torso, figure, group. One of the most important genres of easel sculpture is the portrait, which provides a unique opportunity for perception - viewing the sculpture from different points of view, which provides enormous opportunities for the multifaceted characterization of the person being portrayed.
Easel sculpture includes:
|
A bust, waist or shoulder-length depiction of a person in a round sculpture. |
|
|
Small sculptural works created for interior decoration. Small sculptures include genre figurines, tabletop portraits, and toys. |
|
 |
|
 |
A type of small sculpture - a desktop (cabinet) size statue much smaller than life-size, used for interior decoration. |
 |
Statue- a free-standing three-dimensional image of a full-length human figure or an animal or a fantastic creature. Usually the statue is placed on a pedestal. |
 |
A sculptural image of a human torso without head, arms and legs. The torso can be a fragment of an ancient sculpture or an independent sculptural composition. |
Monumental sculpture- sculpture directly related to the architectural environment and characterized by its large size and significance of ideas. Located in an urban or natural environment, it organizes an architectural ensemble, organically integrates into the natural landscape, decorates squares, architectural complexes, creating spatial compositions that may include architectural structures.
Monumental sculpture includes:
 |
Memorial |
 |
Monument- a monument of significant size in honor of a major historical event, an outstanding public figure, etc. |
 |
Monumental sculpture, designed for perception from long distances, is made of durable materials (granite, bronze, copper, steel) and is installed on large open spaces(on natural elevations, on artificially created embankments). |
|
Statue- a work of art created to immortalize people or historical events. Single- and multi-figure compositions, busts, equestrian monuments |
 |
Stele- a vertically standing stone slab with an inscription, relief or pictorial image. |
 |
Obelisk- a tetrahedral pillar tapering upward, topped with a point in the form of a pyramid. |
 |
Rostral column- a free-standing column, the trunk of which is decorated with sculptural images of the bows of ships |
 |
Arc de Triomphe, triumphal gate, triumphal column - a solemn building in honor of military victories and other significant events. |
Concept of sculpture
Sculpture(from Latin sculptura, from sculpo - carve, cut out) - sculpture, plastic - a type of art whose works reflect the surrounding reality in three-dimensional, physically three-dimensional images using various plastic materials.
For a long time, the concepts of “sculpture” and “plastic” were considered synonymous, but their semantic load differs. Sculpture is a broader concept. Plastic art, on the one hand, is a technique of sculpture from soft materials (clay, plasticine, wax, eglin), on the other, an artistic and visual means that allows one to give figurativeness to sculpture. Unlike painting and graphics, sculpture covers a smaller range of objects and phenomena that could become objects for depiction. Expressive means in sculpture are developed with greater care. In many ways, sculpture has something in common with architecture. Since both types of art deal with volume and space and are subject to the laws of tectonics, 1 they are material in nature and often complement each other. However, there is a significant difference. Architecture has a functional purpose; it organizes space for human life in a certain way, which cannot be said about sculpture. Real, and not pictorial three-dimensionality, physicality is the main feature of this art.
Sculptors are most sensitive to volume and shape. This ability is a necessary component of plastic creativity, like a painter’s “sense of color” or “ absolute pitch"from the musician. The comprehension of volume occurs not only in the sculptor, but also in the viewer. To understand the essence of a sculptural work, you must be able to understand the “play” of surfaces, feel the formation, its imagery, since sculpture is not an ethereal volume, but an image expressed in a certain material, made in a certain technique and revealing a certain idea. A complete “reading” of a sculpture is possible when the essence of the material is understood - its physical qualities and capabilities, beauty and variety of texture.
1. Tectonics (from the Greek tektonik6s - related to construction).
The coolness and delicacy of porcelain cannot fully convey masculinity, swiftness, determination, courage, just as the warmth and simplicity of wood are not suitable for creating an image of the majestic, important, regal and ambitious. As Lao Tzu said, “pots are made of clay, but the clay ceases to be clay when it becomes a pot.” It is this feature that allows the material to become a material carrier of the image and makes sculpture a laconic art. Laconism lies in the ability to generalize the form and concentrate the content of an artistic image. This is one of the main paradoxes of sculpture: on the one hand, it is simple to perceive, since its forms are generalized and concretized, on the other hand, it is complex, since its generalization is due to symbolism, and this complicates its understanding. Very often, simple combinations of forms contain the deepest thought, and vice versa, decorative excesses emphasize emptiness and meaninglessness.
Sculpture as an art form is interesting because, as in real art, there is a lot of understatement and this contributes to the development of the viewer’s imaginative thinking and encourages him to co-create. But in order to participate in this process, it is necessary to master at least a minimum of knowledge that reveals certain laws and rules of sculpture. Knowledge of these patterns and expressive features of sculpture is needed by both children and teachers (present and future). In this regard, it seems important to consider a number of questions that will help to understand the specifics of sculpture.
Types of sculpture
Sculpture belongs to a type of art that is increasingly becoming part of a person’s daily life, unnoticed by him. Often we don’t even notice that we are surrounded by things that are part of the sculpture. For example, talisman keychains, medallions, coins, shelf figurines, cameos, etc. All this speaks of the diversity of sculpture and at the same time of its integrity.
The expressive means and materials used in the work allow the sculptor to create both a majestic monument to the hero and a small relief pendant. Between them there are many sculptural works of different types and genres.
Based on three-dimensional volume:
- round sculpture, whose works are freely located in space, i.e., they imply a circular view, a play of volume and space. The round sculpture has several varieties:
statue(the figure is positioned at full height);
sculptural group(two or more figures that reveal one idea and make up a single whole);
statuette(sculptural figurine of small size, much smaller than its real size);
torso(sculptural image of a human torso);
bust(chest image of a person);
head(a sculptural portrait of a person, limited to the image of a head).
Another type of round sculpture has appeared - kinesthetic, which does not require walking around, it demonstrates itself thanks to the movements performed;
- relief (the image is located on a plane that serves as the background, translated as “raised”, “convex”). The main difference between a relief and a round sculpture is that in it only the front part of the block is perceived, since it is connected to the wall. The relief has several varieties, they vary depending on its purpose and position on the architectural plane ( frontal composition, frieze, lampshade, tiles, arranged in fragments).
The location of the relief affects its height:
bas-relief- a relief that has a small height; it protrudes less than half of the total volume. The real volume in the bas-relief is little expressed; it is contained in a shallow zone between the background and the front plane parallel to it;
high relief - a relief of great height; it protrudes from the surface by more than half the volume. The high relief figures resemble statues that are pushed close to the wall. The high relief can be viewed from three sides; it seems to embrace the sculptural form, freely penetrating to the very background;
counter-relief- an in-depth relief that does not protrude on the surface, but removes the volume from the surface;
mixed terrain has elements of several types of relief. For example, on a slab there is a convex relief image, the contour of which is made using recessed grooves.
-monumental and decorative, directly related to a specific architectural, spatial or natural environment. Its main difference from other types of sculpture is its joint, inseparable existence with architectural building, For example, relief pediments, friezes, statues on pediments, balustrades, portals, in niches, columns in the form of sculptures (caryatids, atlantes);
- decorative, intended for decorating parks, gardens, streets, squares, boulevards, fountains. Along with architecture, it creates a certain appearance of the city, is not associated with a separate structure, and is focused on the landscape or architectural ensemble. In decorative sculpture one can identify the following types:
gardening- placed in recreation areas (squares, parks, gardens, alleys, rest houses, sanatoriums, etc.);
urban- located on the streets of the city, making the sometimes faceless streets solemn, interesting, and sometimes funny.
In urban sculpture there are several directions:
monuments, dedicated to various cultural figures, heroes, statesmen;
plastic works, associated with the biography of a particular figure (for example, a sculpture located near the Moscow Circus named after Yu. V. Nikulin; the sculptural group “Natalie and A.S. Pushkin”, located on Arbat in Moscow);
allegorical sculpture, conveying an abstract idea through an image. Works of sculpture dedicated to fairy-tale characters and historical events can be allegorical (for example, the sculptural group “Samson Tearing the Lion’s Jaws” in Peterhof, personifying Russia’s victory over Sweden in the Northern War; a plot from oral folk art “Permyak - Salty Ears” in Perm; "Chizhik-Pyzhik" in St. Petersburg);
sculpture depicting a collective image any profession or social phenomenon (for example, a monument to a dog brutally killed in the subway, the sculpture “Plumber” located on the sidewalk, the sculpture “Kiss” by C. Brancausi; the sculpture “Burglar” attached to the window of a residential building);
- easel, having independent significance and a more intimate nature, not directly related to architecture and landscape. It is not intended for any specific place; its perception is not influenced by the place where it is located.
The name comes from the word “machine” - a rotating stand on which the master places the sculpture while working. Therefore, easel sculpture is close in size to the life-size of the depicted objects (people, objects, animals). Most often it is located in museum halls, residential interiors, and exhibitions, which are its usual environment;
- sculpture small form, multifaceted in its essence and including a wide range of works of different nature, functions and genres. Small-form sculpture is usually called small-sized works of genre themes intended for residential interiors and places of worship;
- small plastic(works of a small, “miniature” size). The most ancient type of small plastic art is considered to be art. glyptics (carving done on hard semi-precious minerals). Some of these works had multiple indentations, which made it possible to use them as seals. The images themselves were called intaglios , which in different cultural and historical periods had different forms. Another type of small plastic surgery - bone carving (elephant, walrus), whose works are also small in size. Despite the fact that this trade was practiced in different parts of the world, only a few became the most famous. These include figurines of North Kholmogory masters and Japanese miniatures - netsuke.
The variety of works of small plastic art is great. These include small figurines from semi-precious stones, wood, bronze, porcelain, earthenware, glass; plates with relief image, performing the functions of brooches (clasps), brooches, amulets, cameos, coins, medals, etc. On the one hand, works of small plastic art are utilitarian and have no of great importance in human life (key chains made in the form of relief images), on the other hand, they carry serious religious and civic ideas. For example, a medal is a relief image of certain symbols located on both sides of the plate, or figurines of idols revered in paganism, a cross with the image of the crucified Christ.
By degree of approximation sculptures to real objects The following types of surrounding reality are distinguished:
- realistic- reflects objects and phenomena of actually existing reality through plastic images;
- allegorical- resembles a simple pictorial puzzle, which contains a system of identification marks that allows you to solve it. The allegory contains certain attributes that make the sculpture easily recognizable. For example, a sculpture depicting a blindfolded woman with scales in her hands represents justice.
A type of allegory - personification, denoting the embodiment of an abstract concept in the form of a human figure. For example, Nike, personifying victory; Fortuna, denoting fate; Libertas, characterizing freedom.
Within the framework of personalized works of sculpture, geographical personifications very often appear, in which the image of rivers, mountains, cities and even countries is created. In order for the essence of these works to be clear upon perception, they must be accompanied by an explanatory note explaining the essence of the symbolism;
- abstract- consists in creating a collective plastic image that reveals only the inner essence of the depicted object, object, phenomenon or concept. External resemblance is not important. Some individual elements may vaguely resemble the real form, otherwise it would be extremely difficult to “read” the idea of the sculpture. In general, the plastic image is filled with symbols and attributes that allow you to look at familiar things differently. In abstract sculpture, the core moments of a particular phenomenon are more clearly, clearly, and subtly noted (for example, “Woman Combing Her Hair” by A. Archipenko; “Reclining Figure” by G. Moore; “Variations” by N. Gabo; “Bird” by K. Brancusi).
Based on shape The following types of sculpture are distinguished:
- monument- the most common form of sculpture, the main task is to preserve in “eternal” material a reminder of a historical figure or significant event. Thanks to the monuments we for many years We remember people who have passed away, past events. In this case, the monument does not act as an echo of the past, it is relevant for each generation, since in each cultural and historical period it symbolizes something different;
- monument very close to the monument. It is also designed to remind people of some significant events. At first glance, it is very difficult to draw the line between a monument and a monument. However, each of them has its own specifics. Firstly, the monument has more intimate forms of expression, and the monument is always majestic. Secondly, the monument is made so that the depicted object is recognizable; for this, the realities of the era and attributes characteristic of a particular person are used. The monument does not need such details, since the attributes hide behind them a deep meaning that is understandable outside of time and outside of space (for example, the “Motherland” monument in Volgograd; the Statue of Liberty in New York, O. Zadkine’s “Ruined City” monument , reminiscent of the bombing of the Dutch city of Rotterdam in 1940).
There is one more difference between a monument and a monument: its location is always dictated by the architectural environment of the city. The monument requires careful selection of location, since it plays a city-forming role, occupying one of the central parts of the urban landscape, setting the style of the space around it. A monument requires a distance between it and the viewer so that its grandeur can be felt. The effect of elevation is achieved by a pedestal (support, stand), which seems to transfer the monument to another space, separating it from the ground and turning it into an identifying sign of separation from everyday reality.
The concept of “pedestal” also means some kind of support, or rather “foot.” However, the pedestal is associated with the monument, and the monument with the pedestal. Although the pedestal establishes a distance between the monument and the viewer, it is not as pronounced as in the monument. The pedestal of the monument has its own visual language in the form of statues and reliefs that reveal the content of the entire image.
The pedestal of a monument, the pedestal of a monument, the stand for an easel sculpture, the base of a bust have one common property; they mark the boundary between the artistic image and the viewer, between the world of reality and the world of art;
- tombstone- a type of sculpture very close in function to a monument and monument is also associated with the theme of eternity. Unlike a memorial and a memorial, a tombstone addresses issues of life and death, immortality and dying;
- genre sculpture different from all previous types. It's not related to the topic eternal memory, displays various life situations and phenomena in all their diversity. The form can be realistic, allegorical and even abstract. Its specificity lies in the reflection of life in a plastic image, using various genres of art.
Genres of sculpture
Animalistic genre. Works of this genre reveal the image of an animal through plasticity.
Despite the fact that people have been depicting animals since ancient times, this genre took shape at the beginning of the 19th century, when several directions already existed.
First direction is associated with the preservation of naturalism in images of animals, the second is characterized by works in which animals become the personification of human qualities. The form of the image is different - from stylization to abstraction, from typification to allegory.
Portrait- creating an image of a person in general or a specific individual. The genre is simple and difficult at the same time, since sculpture is limited in expressive means, which complicates the process of plastic shaping.
Some sculptors strive for naturalism (a person is depicted as he is); others idealize the model (the person is portrayed as he would like to see himself in the eyes of others).
The development of the portrait genre in different cultural and historical periods had its own characteristics (the image of a representative of the people, class, era was created), which led to the identification of several varieties:
- chamber the portrait is distinguished by its external simplicity, hiding inner world models. It most clearly reveals the author's informal attitude towards the model;
- front door the portrait looks more solemn and at the same time detached from the viewer, as if rising above the ordinary and everyday life thanks to a huge number of decorative elements (costume elements, accessories, attributes, etc.);
- portrait-genre - not just a portrait of a person, but the implementation of a certain idea of a portrait based on a synthesis with another genre. For example, the image of a historical figure combines two genres: portrait and historical genre, the statue of Apollo - portrait and mythological genre.
Less common in sculpture are everyday, mythological and historical genres.
Everyday genre involves revealing in sculpture the themes of everyday life, acquaintance with the realities of everyday life. Content side of the works everyday genre touches on very deep topics that have philosophical roots, encouraging the viewer to think about complex life issues.
Historical and mythological genres have a longer development history. Themes of history, mythology and religion have been of concern to sculptors for a very long time, because each era is characterized by its own interpretation of historical events, mythological or religious subjects.
Still life and landscape. Initially, they were only used in conjunction with some other leading genre. But recently, when the subject and nature have become a separate subject for works of plastic art, sculptures have appeared that give the viewer the opportunity to look at the world around them as at a living organism. The prerequisite for the development of these genres was experiments with sculptural form, which made it possible to free oneself from the lifelikeness of what is depicted and avoid the effect of a cast.
Fragment genre. In it, individual elements of the human body, fragments of natural objects and objects exist independently.
The artistic stimulus for the development of this genre was the fragments of ancient sculptures found during archaeological excavations, which, despite all their incompleteness, remained expressive and interesting. It is because of their atypicality that they have become collectibles. Gradually the fragments acquired independence in sculpture.
Outstanding representatives of this genre are rightly considered O. Rodin, who drew the attention of others to the amazing plastically artistic sound of parts of the human body, and W. Boccioni, who took a futuristic look at things, examining them from the inside.
