Russian literature of the 19th century. Russian literature of the first quarter of the 19th century

At the Lyceum exam on January 8, 1815, Alexander Pushkin, in the presence of G. R. Derzhavin, inspiredly read his poem “Memories in Tsarskoe Selo.” The future poet said about the bygone century: “And you flew by, unforgettable!” A little later he will again remember the past century:

How long has it been rushing along, full of events, Worried like the ocean?

Gabriel Romanovich Derzhavin, in whose works “was clearly imprinted Russian XVIII century”, opened up new opportunities for Russian poetry. The poet made it a subject lyrical works the life of an ordinary person, and his artistic discoveries were adopted by poets XIX century. Poem “Eugene. Life of Zvanskaya" was the first attempt to create a novel in verse, to which he later received a lively response A. S. Pushkin"Eugene Onegin". The poets of the golden age of Russian literature were close to the accusatory thrust of Derzhavin’s “formidable lyre.” In the poem “I erected a monument to myself not made by hands...” Pushkin, asserting his place in Russian literature, clearly outlined the great role of Derzhavin in the history of Russian poetry.

“Old Man Derzhavin” crossed the turn of the century in the prime of his creative powers: “Derzhavin’s poetry is the one that appeared untimely... Pushkin’s poetry, and Pushkin’s poetry is the one that appeared on time... Derzhavin’s poetry” (V. Belinsky).

Unlike his predecessors, Krylov acted in fables not only as a moralist. A. A. Bestuzhev Marlinsky wrote: “...his every fable is a satire, the strongest because it is short and told with an air of innocence.” Often Krylov’s fables were associated with specific historical events: “Quartet” ridiculed the reorganization of ministries, “Fish Dances” the omnipotence of Arakcheev, fables reflecting events are widely known Patriotic War 1812. Of course, the possible interpretation of fables is much broader than the facts that gave rise to their creation.

At the beginning of the 19th century, the literary community widely discussed the question of ways to develop the Russian language. As a result of the controversy, opposing literary organizations arose. In 1811, Admiral A. S. Shishkov founded the society “Conversation of Lovers of the Russian Word” in St. Petersburg, whose meetings were held in Derzhavin’s house - the venerable poet presided over them. The object of attacks by “Conversations...” was first Karamzin and his supporters - the “Karamzinists”, and then Zhukovsky.

One should not think that everything that “Conversation...” defended was bad and worthy of ridicule. Thus, they keenly felt the power and energy of Derzhavin’s poetry, but at the same time they were fierce defenders of the archaic, ponderous style. Shishkov demanded the abolition or replacement of foreign words that Karamzin introduced into the Russian language: audience, billiards, heroism, galoshes, catastrophe, moral, orator, enthusiasm, era, aesthetic. Shishkov's supporters suggested speaking to the audience instead of the audience. an eloquent speaker instead of an orator. Sharokat instead of billiards. wet shoes instead of galoshes... The “Shishkovists” did not accept the words created by Karamzin: development, influence, shade, touching...

In contrast to Shishkov’s society, the famous “Arzamas” arose in 1815. All members of this literary society bore names taken from Zhukovsky's ballads. Zhukovsky was Svetlana, Batyushkov was Achilles, young Pushkin was Cricket, and his uncle Vasily Lvovich was called “Here.” Defending innovations in the language, they actively ridiculed the “Conversation...”, calling it “The Conversation of the Destroyers of the Russian Word,” and distributed many satires and parodies of their opponents in handwritten form. For example, each new member of “Arzamas” had to “bury” one of the participants in the “Conversation...” in his introductory speech. The protocols of society, which Zhukovsky kept, still delight readers with their wit and originality.

"Conversation..." after Derzhavin's death in 1816 disintegrated, and in 1818 "Arzamas" also ceased to exist. For the “Arzamas Protocols” Zhukovsky wrote a poetic text of his farewell speech:

Brothers are friends from Arzamas! You listen to the protocol, that's right, you hoped. No protocol! What to record? ..

This latest comic document records what each of the Arzamas participants was doing this year and why they could not be brought together.

Echoes of the disputes between “Conversations of Lovers of the Russian Word” and “Arzamas” will sound on the pages of literary works for a long time. You can find a mention of the name Shishkov in the lines of “Eugene Onegin”. In Chapter VIII of the novel, Pushkin uses a French phrase and immediately makes a playful reservation: “...Shishkov, forgive me: / I don’t know how to translate.”

At the beginning of the 19th century, the era of sentimentalism came to an end and a new literary movement emerged - romanticism.

Romanticism widely embraces the phenomena of reality. We can no longer say that this is only a literary direction - this is the principle of perception of the world, therefore, in the interpretation of the term dictionaries do not skimp on variants of meanings. At the heart of the romantic worldview and romantic art is the discord between ideal and reality. When an obvious discrepancy arises between the imperfect surrounding world and the ideal that exists beyond its borders, the world seems to split into two. This phenomenon has received an expressive definition: romantic duality. Such conflictual unity forces us to see any phenomenon both in the light of those ideas that the romantic soul gives birth to, and in the system of connections determined by real life.

The preferences of the romantic authors were on the side of the sublime soul, striving to overcome the imperfections of the world. Romanticism strengthened the lyrical principle in art, focusing the artist mainly on depicting the unique and changeable internal state of the individual. “Lyricism for romantic art is, as it were, a spontaneous basic feature,” poetry turned out to be most “capable of finding expressions for an internal experience preoccupied only with itself, its goals and events,” noted the German philosopher Hegel.

Romanticism contrasted the canons with improvisation, stylistic freedom, and a new attitude towards genres. Classicism trusted primarily reason, sentimentalism - feeling, romanticism - intuition.

In Russian literature, the term romanticism was first mentioned in 1816 by the poet and friend of Pushkin, P. A. Vyazemsky. “Apology of personality,” according to A.I. Tyrgenev, is the main thing in this method. The properties of a particular person, and not circumstances or the environment, determine the logic of plots among romanticists. "The circumstances have no of great importance. The whole point is in character,” writes one of the prominent representatives of romanticism French writer Benjamin Constant, whose hero Adolphe (from the novel of the same name, created in 1815) was considered an example of a romantic hero “with his embittered mind seething in empty action. The sphere of romanticism, as Belinsky wrote, is “the entire inner, soulful life of a person, that mysterious soil of the soul and heart, from where all vague aspirations for the best and sublime rise, trying to find satisfaction in the ideals created by fantasy.” The romantic created a world in which unusual characters and amazing passions appeared, the lives of the heroes took place in plots full of dramatic events, they were surrounded by spiritual and healing nature. the heroism of protest coexisted with the motives of “world sorrow”, “world evil”, “the night side of the soul”.

The English poet George Gordon Byron, who died for the freedom of Greece, became the personification of the romantic hero of the era. This was an example of the unity of poetry - action - fate. It was in Byron's work that a new literary image appeared: a romantic personality who challenges the world with its inertia and immobility? - Byronic hero.

Romantics were interested in the origins of the birth of powerful characters on their native soil, which had a fruitful effect on the development national cultures. They saw folklore as one of the sources of fantasy that carried them into other worlds. It was then that the Brothers Grimm turned to the literary treatment of folk tales. German fairy tales. Interest in the history of one's people, national traditions reflected in the plots of ballads, legends and fairy tales of Zhukovsky, in the brightness romantic works Pushkin, Lermontov. The mysterious world of the Middle Ages was captured in historical novels Walter Scott. The Romantics put forward the principles of historicism and nationalism in literature, which prepared the way for the advent of realism. “Nationality and originality are the main sign of true poetry,” speaking in defense of romanticism, writes P. A. Vyazemsky in the preface to Pushkin’s poem “The Fountain of Bakhchisarai.”

Romantic techniques caused fierce disputes, which mostly concerned violations of all kinds of canons. A powerful impetus for the emergence of such disputes was given by the publication of Pushkin’s poem “Ruslan and Lyudmida”. Supporters of classicism strongly criticized it for its style, plot, and the characters chosen; critics saw obvious deviations from the rules in everything.

Each literary movement has a predominant inclination towards specific genres and even types of literature. For Russian romanticism of the early 19th century, these were lyrical and lyric-epic genres. The brightness of the romanticism palette was ensured by its stylistic freedom. The names of V. A. Zhukovsky, K. N. Batyushkov, P. A. Vyazemsky, A. I. Odoevsky, D. V. Benevitinov, I. I. Kozlov, M. Yu. Lermontov are associated with romanticism. Prose writers V.F. Odoevsky and A.A. Bestuzhev-Marlinsky are also considered romantics.

The founder of Russian romanticism was Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky. You have already encountered the work of this poet more than once, who at the beginning of the 19th century was considered the first Russian poet in terms of fame and recognition. You are familiar with his fate, his rare gentleness and humanity, and his spiritual responsiveness. “The ability to understand and feel the creativity of another person, combined with a brilliant poetic gift, allowed him to become a brilliant translator. However, subtly perceiving all the movements of someone else’s soul, Zhukovsky creates his translations as original and completely independent works. This is “The Country Cemetery” - a free translation of Thomas Gray's elegy. According to Zhukovsky, this work was the beginning of his creative path.

The spiritual sensitivity and inspired grace of Zhukovsky’s lyrics captivated his contemporaries. We still feel “the captivating sweetness of his poems.” Belinsky claimed that Zhukovsky’s muse “gave Russian Poetry a soul and a heart.” The poet's pen includes excellent examples of landscape lyricism; among the genres, elegy and friendly message especially stand out.

Zhukovsky was often called a “balladeer.” Belinsky claimed that he began, created and approved this kind of poetry in Rus': contemporaries of Zhukovsky’s youth looked at him primarily as an author of ballads.” He expanded the range of topics to which the ballad addressed. This lyric epic genre was previously limited to the reproduction of medieval folk legends, and Zhukovsky also used ancient myth, and Russian legends, which have their own unique flavor. It is interesting to compare the free adaptations of Burger's ballad "Lenora": "Lyudmila" (1808), "Svetlana" (1812) and the closest to the original called "Lenora" (1831). Of these three ballads, you know “Svetlana,” which was and remains one of the most popular among the dozens of works created by Zhukovsky. You are probably familiar with the poet’s other ballads: “The Cup”, “Roland the Squire”, “Fisherman”, “The Glove”, “The Forest King”.

When characterizing Zhukovsky’s work, we must not forget about his activities as a translator. The poet introduced the Russian reader to the works of writers and poets different countries. He translated the works of Homer, Goethe, Schiller, Byron, Gray, Scott, Burger, Uhland, Klopstock, Iranian, Indian, Tajik epic, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, the old story “Ondine” by Lamott Fouquet, the Corsican story “Matteo Falcone” and etc.

“The importance of this poet for Russian poetry and literature is immensely great,” wrote Belinsky.

Konstantin Nikolaevich Batyushkov played a major role in the development of Russian romanticism. His lyrics appear as a poetic autobiography - “Live as you write, and write as you live.” Batyushkov’s work is distinguished by the perfection of verse, the search for new artistic forms, deep psychologism. The perfection of the poet’s lyrics was highly appreciated by Pushkin, who considered Batyushkov his idol: “Italian sounds! What kind of miracle worker is this Batyushkov.” V. G. Belinsky highly appreciated his poetic gift: “Batyushkov contributed a lot and a lot to the fact that Pushkin appeared as he really appeared.”

The influence of romanticism on all spheres of cultural life in Europe and America was very strong. It is enough to list the names of the most famous authors, who firmly connected their work with this direction: J. G. Byron, P. B. Shelley, G. Heine, A. V. de Vigny, D. Leopardi, E. T. A. Hoffmann, E. Poe, G. Melville.

Romanticism in music developed in close connection with literature (hence the attention to synthetic genres - opera, song): F. Schubert, K. M. von Weber, R. Bagner, G. Berlioz, F. Liszt, F. Chopin.

IN fine arts The romantic direction was most clearly manifested in the painting and graphics of E. Delacroix, J. Constable, W. Turner, O. A. Kiprensky, A. O. Orlovsky.

30-40s of the XIX century.

The first decades of the 19th century passed under the sign of romanticism. Zhukovsky is popular, the genius of Pushkin is blossoming, Lermontov is making himself known, Gogol’s creative path is beginning, and the critic Belinsky is actively participating in the development of Russian literature. Literature is increasingly becoming an integral part of the spiritual life of society.

Young people and students create associations that have a socio-political orientation. Thus, at Moscow University, in the circle of N.V. Stankevich - V.G. Belinsky, M.A. Bakunin, K.S. Aksakov participate; in the circle of A. I. Herzen - N. P. Ogarev. As Herzen argued, the “Russia of the future” existed precisely between these “boys who had just emerged from childhood” - they had “the heritage of universal science and purely folk Rus'.”

The autocratic government proclaims the ideological formula of Russian society: “Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality. It was made in 1833 in a circular from the Minister of Public Education, Count S.S. Uvarov, which stated “that public education should be carried out in the united spirit of Orthodoxy, autocracy and nationality.”

Disputes about the nationality of literature, about the type of positive hero, about patriotism, about attitudes towards the culture of other peoples were actively conducted in periodicals. The role of journals continues to increase, among the most "Moscow Telegraph" N. A. Polevoy and “Telescope” by N. I. Nadezhdin, in which potters, Koltsov, Tyutchev, Belinsky were published. For publishing works objectionable to the authorities, these magazines were closed. For some time (1830-1831) their place was taken by the Literary Newspaper. It was the organ of the writers of Pushkin's circle. the newspaper was edited by A. A. Delvig, A. S. Pushkin, P. A. Vyazemsky, D. V. Davydov, E. A. Baratynsky, N. M. Yazykov, V. F. Odoevsky, A. A. were published in it . Bestuzhev-Marlinsky. Active position The newspaper caused a response from the authorities: Literaturnaya Gazeta was closed.

Pushkin could not come to terms with the fact that the possibility of publication had disappeared. In 1836, he created the magazine “Sovremennik”, in which he published his works: “The Feast of Peter the Great”, “ Captain's daughter", "The Stingy Knight", and the works of authors close to him: "The Nose" and "The Stroller" by Gogol, poems by Davydov, Baratynsky, Koltsov, Tyutchev, excerpts from notes about the Patriotic War of 1812 by the cavalry maiden Durova, etc.

It was during these years that Russian literature made its way from romanticism to realism.

The confrontation and interaction of literary trends lasted for a long time, and it manifested itself not only in the work of individual writers, but also in specific works. This is evidence of the complexity of the development of the literary process in Russia. A striking example This is the fate of the comedy “Wit from the Mind” by Alexander Sergeevich Griboedov. Conceived in 1816, completed in 1824, first published (only a fragment!) in 1825 and not allowed on stage for a long time. The comedy became popular, spreading in the lists. The appearance of “Woe from Wit” caused a fierce controversy, during which its special place in Russian literature was established. The comedy retained the signs of classicism, in its characters one could discern romantic traits, and above all, she amazed with the sharp picture of morals characteristic of realism. “I’m not talking about poetry: half of it should be included in the proverb” - this is how the bright, living language characterized realistic comedy A. S. Pushkin.

For Russian literature of the 19th century, realism can be considered the leading direction. In the literature of different countries, it arose in parallel with the successes of the exact sciences. The position of a realist writer is close to that of a scientist, since they consider the world around them as a subject of study, observation, and research.

Romanticism gravitated towards the depiction of an extraordinary personality, unusual subjects, spectacular contrasts and vivid forms of expression. Realism strives to depict everyday existence ordinary people, to reproduce the real flow of life. “To accurately and powerfully reproduce the truth, the reality of life, is the greatest happiness for a writer, even if this truth does not coincide with his own sympathies,” argued I. S. Typgenev.

Modern literary critic A. M. Gurevich defines the peculiarity of realism of the 30-40s of the 19th century: “The discovery of the poetry of the everyday, prosaic and everyday side of reality, the everyday flow of life, the beauty of familiar, established relationships between people became the most important achievement of classical realism.” Reproducing the truth of life, realism reflected various forms of human dependence on society, hostility social order to the individual individual. This is how critical realism was born.

However, for Russian realism XIX century, the foreground was not denial, but affirmation. “The dynamic relationship between the pressure of external circumstances and internal freedom becomes a problem that worries literature,” argued literary historian Yu. M. Lotman.

Within the framework of the 19th century, Russian and Western European realism differed in that foreign realist writers gravitated primarily towards an artistic and analytical study of modernity, while in Russia the authors sought to transform the world and man. What united them was their close attention to the study of the general properties of human nature. These problems will arise especially convincingly later, in mid-19th century.

Russian realism is characterized by a close connection with previous literary trends: sentimentalism and romanticism. The romantic thirst for transformation does not leave Russian realists. The ideals, hopes, and aspirations of the people lived on the pages of the works of Russian classics, again and again affirming its nationality.

The development of realism significantly expands the themes of literary works, enriches genre originality works, the sphere of observations of life. “If we were asked what the distinctive character of modern Russian literature is, we would answer: in closer and closer proximity to life, to reality,” wrote V.G. Belinsky in a review of Russian literature for 1846. A mighty galaxy of prose writers entered Russian literature during these years: I. S. Tyrgenev, D. V. Grigorovich, F. M. Dostoevsky, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin.

Belinsky was published in the magazine “Domestic Notes” from 1839 to 1846, and Lermontov’s works were published in them: “Bela”, “Taman”, “Fatalist”, “& Boyarin Orsha”, “Izmail - Bey”; poems by Koltsov, Ogareva, Nekrasov.

In the 30-40s, realism was looking for new forms and a direction appeared that was called the “natural school”.

The combination of the spirit of analysis and detailed, even often scrupulous reproduction of reality, the taste for the “little things in life” came from Gogol’s powers of observation. The image of the “little man” was impossible without attention to detail. In this direction there was a search in the stories and poems of Typgenev, early prose and the poetry of Nekrasov, about the works of Dostoevsky and Dahl, and the poems of Koltsov. One of the most popular genres of this direction was the essay. The titles of the essays can already serve as a characteristic of their content: “The Coachman”, “The Orderly” by V. I. Dahl, “Merchants”, “Officials”, “The Landowner” by V. A. Sollogub.

The works of this direction combine the desire to accurately depict reality and generalize their observations. In this regard, the collection “Physiology of St. Petersburg” (1844-1845) is indicative. It contained essays: Petersburg Corners by Nekrasov, Petersburg Janitor by Dahl, Petersburg Organ Grinders by Grigorovich. In his introductory article, Belinsky argued that the collection forces readers to think. Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky occupied a special place in the literature of those years. His name has become known since 1834, when the article “Literary Dreams” was published. Elegy in prose." Following this publication, articles by the critic began to appear in the magazines Telescope, Moscow Observer, Otechestvennye Zapiski, and Sovremennik. Belinsky saw in literature the expression of “a symbol of the inner life of the people.” He considered criticism “the sister of doubt,” and art as an artistic analysis of reality.

Specific feature public life At the beginning of the 19th century, there was an organization of literary societies, which was an indicator of the relative maturity of literature and the desire to give it the character of a public matter. The earliest of them was one that arose in Moscow in January 1801 "Friendly Literary Society", which grew out of a student circle of graduates of Moscow University and the university Noble boarding school - brothers Andrei and Alexander Ivanovich Turgenev, A.F. Voeikov, A.S. Kaisarov, V.A. Zhukovsky, S.G. Rodzianka. How a circle of young like-minded people opened in St. Petersburg on July 15, 1801. His interests were not limited to literature alone. The society included sculptors (I. I. Terebenev, I. I. Galberg), artists (A. I. Ivanov), archaeologists, historians, doctors (A. I. Ermolaev, I. O. Timkovsky, D. I. languages, etc.). “Society has chosen literature, science and art as the subject of its exercises,” wrote V.V. Popugaev, with the goal of “mutually improving ourselves in these three branches of human abilities” and “contributing to the best of our ability to improve these three branches.” But the leading position in Society was occupied, of course, by writers. Unlike the Friendly Literary Society, they were alien to the Karamzin direction, adhered to educational traditions and developed a civic theme in their work. Among them were people of different social origins: people from petty bureaucrats, clergy, and merchants. In 1811, at Moscow University it was organized "Moscow Society of Lovers of Russian Literature", which existed for more than 100 years. It included among its ranks teachers, writers and simply lovers of fine literature. At first, the chairman of the society was Professor Anton Antonovich Prokopovich Antonsky. The society organized a preparatory committee of six active members, which prepared the next open meetings: selected works for oral reading, discussion or publication in the proceedings of the society. The meetings usually opened with the reading of an ode and ended with the reading of a fable. In between, other genres of literature in poetry and prose were discussed, and articles of a scientific nature were read. “Conversation of lovers of the Russian word” (1811 1816) and opposing her "Arzamas" fell into the center of the literary and social struggle of the first quarter of the 19th century. With the closure of “Conversation...” and the end of the literary dispute with it, a crisis began in the activities of “Arzamas” (1815-1818). In 1817, members of secret Decembrist organizations - N. M. Muravyov, M. F. Orlov, N. I. Turgenev - joined it. Dissatisfied with the fact that society is busy discussing literary issues, the Decembrists are trying to give it a political character. The loose structure of society does not satisfy their serious intentions. They are trying to adopt strict “laws” of society at the meeting and insist on publishing a special journal. A split ensues, and in 1818 the society's activities ceased. Founded in 1818-1819, the “Free Society of Lovers of Russian Literature” and “ Green lamp "become branches ("governments") of secret Decembrist organizations. Participants in the Union of Welfare, in accordance with the charter, were obliged to penetrate legal literary societies and monitor their activities. The meetings of the “Green Lamp” took place in the house of N. Vsevolozhsky, in a hall illuminated by a lamp with a green lampshade. It was a literary association with a radical political orientation, not registered in government circles. This included young oppositionists, among whom were people with republican convictions. The meetings of the “Green Lamp” were attended by poets (F. Glinka, N. Gnedich, A. Delvig, A. Pushkin), theater critics (D. Barkov, Ya. Tolstoy), publicist A. Ulybyshev, society dandies seething with freethinking (P. Kavelin, M. Shcherbinin). In 1816, with the permission of the government, the “Free Society of Competitors of Education and Charity” was founded, which in 1818 received the highest approval under the name of the “Free Society of Lovers of Russian Literature”, with the right to publish its own magazine “Competitor of Education and Charity. Proceedings of the “Free Society of Lovers of Russian Literature.” All benefits from the publication were assigned to “those who, while engaged in the sciences and arts, require support and charity.” The Decembrists (F. Glinka, brothers N. and A. Bestuzhev, K. Ryleev, A. Kornilovich, V. Kuchelbecker, O. Somov), having become members of this society, began a decisive struggle against its well-intentioned wing (N. Tsertelev, B . Fedorov, D. Khvostov, V. Karazin). The struggle was crowned with success, and from 1821 the society became a legal branch of the Decembrist movement. Regular meetings began to be held to discuss the most pressing problems of the humanities, literature and art. Members of the society support with their works the magazines close to their convictions: “Son of the Fatherland”, “Nevsky Spectator”, and then the almanac “Polar Star” created by Ryleev and Bestuzhev. The publication of its own magazine “Competitor of Education and Charity” becomes permanent. Thus, in the early 1820s, the “Free Society of Lovers of Russian Literature” “became the most influential and most significant of all organizations of this type” (R.V. Jesuitova). The activities of the society were discontinued at the end of 1825 due to the Decembrist uprising and the investigation into their case. In 1823 in Moscow, with the participation of V.F. Odoevsky, D.V. Venevitinov, I.V. Kireevsky, S.P. Shevyrev and M.P. Pogodin, the “Society of the wise” was opened - an association of a new type, gravitating not to social literary and political, but to philosophical and aesthetic problems, which acquired particular popularity and significance in the post-Decembrist era.

Literary direction

Fading, leading, emerging literary movement

began his literary career as a convinced “Karamzinist.” Soon, disagreements arose between members of the society in relation to Karamzin. Radical-minded Andrei Turgenev and A. S. Kaisarov, under the influence of Schiller, began to affirm the romantic idea of ​​nationality and high citizenship in literature

Years of activity Literary societies, clubs and salons

Name/status Press organ (magazine)

(In 1811) Moscow Society of Lovers of Russian Literature” It included in its ranks teachers, writers and simply lovers of fine literature. The chairman of the society at first was Professor Anton Antonovich Prokopovich Antonsky

(1811 1816) “Conversation of lovers of the Russian word”

G. R. Derzhavin and A. S. Shishkov. S.A. Shirinsky-Shikhmatov, D.I. Khvostov, A.A. Shakhovskoy, I.S. Zakharov and others also belonged to it. The “Conversation” also included N.I. Gnedich and I.A. Krylov

"Arzamas" Arzamast society of unknown people.

writers (V. A. Zhukovsky, K. N. Batyushkov, P. A. Vyazemsky, A. A. Pleshcheev, V. L. Pushkin, A. S. Pushkin, A. A. Perovsky, S. P. Zhikharev, A. F. Voeikov, F. F. Vigel, D. V. Davydov, D. A. Kavelin), as well as persons better known for their social activities(brothers A. I. and N. I. Turgenev, S. S. Uvarov, D. N. Bludov, D. V. Dashkov, M. F. Orlov, D. P. Severin, P. I. Poletika and others ).

(1819-1820) "Green Lamp"

Decembrists S. P. Trubetskoy, F. N. Glinka, Ya. N. Tolstoy, A. A. Tokarev, P. P. Kaverin, as well as A. S. Pushkin and A. A. Delvig. The meetings were attended by N. I. Gnedich, A. D. Ulybyshev, D. N. Barkov, D. I. Dolgorukov, A. G. Rodzyanko, F. F. Yuryev, I. E. Zhadovsky, P. B. Mansurov , V.V. Engelhardt (1785-1837).

Society of Philosophy

"Mnemosyne"

Vladimir Odoevsky (chairman), Dmitry VenevItinov (secretary), I. V. Kireevsky, N. M. Rozhalin, A. I. Koshelev, V. P. Titov, S. P. Shevyrev, N. A. Melgunov. Sometimes the meetings were attended by some other Moscow writers.

Interested in German (idealistic) philosophy

In the first half of the 19th century there was no classicism, no sentimentalism, no romanticism in its pure form. TO early XIX V. Russian literature has already survived (but not outlived!) an artistic movement on a pan-European scale - classicism. However, it is no coincidence that the first phase of the classical period of Russian literature coincided with the formation and flowering of another pan-European movement in it - sentimentalism. Awareness of value human personality conditioned, and sometimes constrained, regulated by social relations; interest in the “life of the heart,” in feeling, in sensitivity - this is the soil on which Russian sentimentalism developed and which then served as the starting point for further literary evolution. At the same time, both the formation of sentimentalism and the emergence of all subsequent trends and schools were possible only because Karamzin’s reform and the movement it caused gave literature new language- the language of subtle emotional experiences, overflows of feelings, fluctuations and changes in mood, deep heartfelt inclination, longing, melancholy - in a word, the language " inner man" Thus, the main channel of Russian literary evolution in the first half of the century was the same as in the West: sentimentalism, romanticism and realism. But the appearance of each of these stages was extremely unique, and the originality was determined by both the close interweaving and merging of already known elements, and the emergence of new ones - those that Western European literature I didn’t know or hardly knew. It can be argued that at the beginning of the century, in sentimentalism and partly in romanticism, the picture was determined by the fusion of elements, and in subsequent directions (realism) - by the advancement of still unknown, new ones.

The issue of periodization of Russian literature is controversial and complex. Modern literary criticism has the opportunity to expand the scope of the literary process of the 19th century, to return forgotten names and movements, to return the true appearance of many writers and poets (this also applies to the 20th century, probably in a greater sense). The basis of modern periodization is the peculiarities of historical and literary development.

LiteratureIthirdsXIXcentury. This is the period from 1800 to 1840. It was during this period that the foundations of the entire Russian classical literature, its main themes, problems, aesthetic richness and perfection. During this period, three top names can be distinguished: Pushkin, Lermontov, Gogol. The logic of the development of the literary process is connected with these three names and it is impossible to overestimate their importance. Writers of later periods in their artistic work were guided by the features of literature of the early 19th century.

LiteratureIIthirdsXIXcentury. This is literature from the 40s to the 60s. The time of the formation of realism as a type of artistic consciousness.

1842 Gogol’s “Dead Souls” was published, 1845 – the collection “Physiology of St. Petersburg”, which became the manifesto of the “natural school”. The top names of this period can be considered Turgenev, Goncharov, Ostrovsky, Fet, Tyutchev, Leskov, Nekrasov, A.K. Tolstoy and others.

LiteratureIIIthirdsXIXcentury. This is the 70-80(90)s. A milestone time in the history and culture of Russia. The country was on the threshold of a new historical ideal. Contemporaries noted the “breath of completion, outcome.” At the same time, this is the heyday of the great geniuses of the “breath of internationality”: L.N. Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Saltykov-Shchedrin, Chekhov

Conclusions

The literature of that entire era is a special phenomenon, it is exceptional, very unique and incomparable. At the very beginning of the golden age, art began to separate from the gray masses, poetry began to flourish. In Russian literature of the 19th century there were many legislators of works and poems of that time, that is why those times began to be called " Golden age"Russian classical literature. Our classics began to create truly valuable creative and artistic images. It is worth noting that critics also began their activities. Now we can enjoy their results and study their activities of that era.

The trends in Russian literature of the late 19th century were very different; each writer created his own true, extraordinary meaning in his stories. As a result, many so-called movements were formed that were associated with the direction in lyric poetry. Literature has indeed developed very seriously. The 19th century can be considered the best time Russian classics. Basically, all the heyday has occurred in the last passing decades.

1. Literary and social movements

1 Literary social movement first quarter XIX century (1800-25). The period is limited to the dates of the reign of Alexander I. It is important to note that the years of his reign have two different trends and are divided into 2 periods. Frontier - 1812 - Patriotic War. The first half of his reign allows us to talk about Alexander as a reformer king. Pushkin said about these years of rule: “The days of Alexandrov are a wonderful beginning.”

"Thunderstorm 1812" - on the one hand, a patriotic upsurge of incredible spirit, on the other, a sharp loss of illusions. Alexander’s policy sharply “corrected”; he not only did not continue the liberal reforms, but also canceled what he had done. Instead of Speransky, Arakcheev became the tsar’s right hand, and thinking people felt an incredible moral loss.

In political and ideological life, the loss of illusions was expressed in the formation of opposition sentiments, circles, societies, and printed publications. Pestel wrote “the mind was seething.” The Decembrist movement is formed. Vivid debates unfolded on the pages of numerous magazines. St. Petersburg (“Son of the Fatherland”) and Moscow (“Bulletin of Europe”, “Russian Bulletin”) become centers of journalism.

A sign of the times is the creation of literary societies, salons, circles (the Shishkov Society, the Society of Lovers of Russian Literature, the Arzamas Society, etc.)

In the 30s, circles of different directions were formed - political, literary and philosophical (Herzen, Ogarev, Stankevich, Belinsky, Lermontov). Their organizers were sent to hard labor, sent into exile, to become soldiers, and expelled from the university. At this time, many leading magazines were closed and it was difficult to obtain permission to print. With great difficulty, Pushkin publishes Sovremennik. Lermontov gives an absolutely accurate portrait of the era in his novel “A Hero of Our Time.”

This period includes the works of Lermontov, Gogol, Koltsov, Ogarev and others. At this time, Russian prose began to develop.

2 Literary and social movement 40(50) XIX century (1840(42)-55) 1842 - Gogol’s poem “Dead Souls” is published, Herzen returns from exile.

In 1855, Chernyshevsky’s aesthetics developed, Nicholas I died. A time of external slavery and internal liberation. Slavery - in the policies of Nicholas I and feudal-serf relations, internal freedom manifested itself in the emergence of social oppositional criticism.

With the death of the Tsar and the end of the Crimean War, the first half of the 19th century ends. In the 40s Two important main currents of Russian social thought arose - Westernism and Slavophilism, the ideological struggle between which determined the development of social thought for many decades. Slavophiles - proposed a special independent path of development, which consisted in returning to pre-Petrine Rus', taking the patriarchal path of development (Khomyakov, the Kireevsky brothers, Aksakovs, Samarin, Pogodin, Yazykov, Shevyrev, expressed their views in magazine "Moskvityanin")

Westerners - for the Europeanization of Russia (Belinsky, Ogarev, Herzen, Turgenev, the main printed organ - “Notes of the Fatherland”, “Contemporary” by Panaev and Nekrasov).

Public life is reflected in journal polemics. Soremennik, created by Pushkin in 1836, has become one of the main magazines since the middle of the century. At this time, the formation of Russian realism was completed (the works of Goncharov, Leskov, Turgenev, Nekrasov, Dostoevsky, Fet and Tyutchev).

3 Literary and social movement of the 70s. XIX century (1866-81). At this time, the predatory nature of the reforms is revealed, popular riots arise, and general uncertainty grows. This is one of the most tragic and heroic periods of Russian history. This is the emergence, development and outcome of the populist movement. This opposition movement was born from a combination of a sober understanding of reality and a utopian belief in the possibility of its instant transformation. The populist theory was contested in journalism and criticism. The leading journal was Otechestvennye zapiski. This decade saw the creativity of the populists, S.-Shchedrin, Gl. Uspensky and others, populist literature, poetry and prose appeared.

March 1, 1881 – Alexander II was “executed” by the Narodnaya Volya. The era of reaction begins, newspapers and magazines, educational institutions are closed. The leading figure is L. Tolstoy. Russian realism of the 19th century is ending its existence, and the work of Chekhov, Garshin, Korolenko and others is determined by the search for new genre forms, neorealist tendencies appear, the “golden age” of Russian literature is gradually ending its existence.

In the 80s - 90s. XIX century. Central problem literature – the relationship between man and society. The main question is how to find personal support in the world? Increasingly, the analysis of modern life is correlated with eternal, universal ideals. Epic storytelling becomes impossible. Supertypical realism emerges - this is the artistic knowledge of modernity and the assessment of the ideals of its time from the point of view of universal human values, leading to the rapprochement of realistic and romantic types of creativity.

Conclusions

Using the example of development trends in Russian literature of the 19th century, one can see the reflection of social activity in literary works.

The most important historical events that played a special role in the development of the socio-political life of Russia in the first half of the 19th century: the Patriotic War of 1812 and the Decembrist movement naturally determined the course of the literary process, the complexity of which lies in the fact that at the turn of the century (late 18th and early 19th centuries ) there is a mixture of different literary styles, the formation of new aesthetic systems, and the development of new artistic methods.

It is impossible not to notice that such an intensive development of Russian literature, the diversity of literary schools, which in polemical excitement discussed the issues of the uniqueness of the Russian national language, the problem of national character, the problem of nationality, questions of the goals and objectives of literature, determine a rather complex picture of the literary struggle, as a result of which historical ways of development of the literary process.

Ideological and artistic direction in European and American culture of the late 18th century - the first half of the 19th century century .

Originated in Germany . Main features:

• image strong(often rebellious) passions and characters
• interest of romanticism to evil , « dark side», mysticism
• dialectics ("conversation") good and evil
• exclusivity romantic hero, individualism
• often a hero creative artist
• insoluble conflict between hero and society
• escapism to the dream, the ideal
• duality, contrast of images (world, person, etc.)
• cult of the past: idealization Antiquity and the Middle Ages
• interest to folklore: myth, fairy tale, “return to roots and nature.”
• nature as an expression of the spontaneous beginning of life, prototype of Freedom .
• exotic distant countries (interest in the culture of the East).

• Russian romanticism – chronologically more late phenomenon than the European one. He's going through the process of becoming in 1810 – 1820 . (at this time European romanticism is going through a crisis);
• Less distinct, more close connection with other literary movements- classicism, sentimentalism.
• Emergence mixed, transitional forms and genres.
• This is the era of national liberation movements, an era of hope, faith in the future revival of Russia
• Russian romanticism was more connected with the ideas of the Enlightenment
• For Russian romanticism, it remains unchanged mind power
• Interaction of aesthetics and ethics – main feature Russian romanticism.
• In Russian romanticism the hero’s individualism is “smoothed out” .
• Russian romantic hero gravitates towards the people, i.e. idea of ​​nationality
• In Russian romanticism the idea of ​​love of freedom was associated with ideas abolition of serfdom, reforms in society
• For romantics it is especially acute problem of self-determination
• For Russian romantics love is a special sacrament, full of chastity

The first decades were the cradle of Russian classical literature of the 19th century. They are illuminated by the feat of our people in the Patriotic War of 1812, who defended the freedom and independence of their Motherland.

Russian literature of the first quarter of the 19th century. There was a keen sense of the spiritual unity of the nation and faith in the great future of the Russian people. This also corresponded to its general movement towards romanticism, the main goal of which was the creation in the country of an original, inimitable, essentially folk literature.

Critical and journalistic articles of that time persistently proclaimed thoughts about the need to “delve into the character Russian people, into the spirit of Russian antiquity and then into the private characters of our ancient heroes,” to show “something great, important and, moreover, truly Russian,” “to accustom Russians to respect their own.”

But a poet was already born in Rus', who was destined - and precisely in these years - to create works in which the “Russian spirit” manifested itself in all its beauty and strength. It was Ivan Andreevich Krylov(1769-1844) - great Russian fabulist. In the fable, Krylov completely found himself as an artist and fully revealed himself as a master. psychological portrait, which has access to any image human characters and life situations, thoughts and feelings of representatives of almost all walks of life and classes. And not just an image, but from the height of centuries-old folk experience and national thinking of the Russian people, who, as Pushkin correctly noted, are characterized by “cheerful slyness of mind, mockery and a picturesque way of expressing themselves.”

In Krylov's fables, Russia saw itself. Representatives of different classes and ranks, modern life with its socio-historical and moral clashes, political and literary events - everything received here a deeply true, living and artistically perfect expression.

The “respect for one’s own” emphasized by our writers of those years did not, however, mean a desire for national isolation. Translations of a variety of Western European poets and prose writers were constantly published in Russian magazines. Domestic literature used this experience to solve their national artistic tasks and in many ways decisively transformed the literary heritage of other peoples that she perceived. The era of Russian romanticism began.

Creativity lies at its origins Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky(1783-1852). He was the most prominent representative of Russian romanticism.

They started talking about Zhukovsky in 1808, when his ballad “Lyudmila” (a free translation of “Lenora” by the German poet G. A. Burger) was published in the “Bulletin of Europe”. Everything about her was new, unexpected and familiar at the same time. Our poet gave the medieval legend about the bride and her vision of the groom killed in a distant battle a pronounced national flavor. Readers were suddenly inspired by folk legends and superstitions, night terrors and mystical horrors. The events of the legend, transferred to the soil of Russian history, were intertwined in a ballad depicting Russian national life and were decorated with folk poetic images. This kind of work - “terrible” in content and light, transparent in artistic execution: you read, you are overcome with horror, but you can’t tear yourself away - Russian poetry had never known before. The appearance of this ballad marked the beginning of a new, romantic stage in the development of Russian literature.

The poet's fame was strengthened when his original ballad “Svetlana” (1808-1812) was published in 1813, where the life of the Russian people was poeticized.

From that time on, the ballad genre became the leading genre in Zhukovsky’s work. And although most of the ballad plots were borrowed, the poet “selected only those or those of them that corresponded to his internal content, the need to express it, grafting his own onto someone else’s idea.” “Own idea” permeates all his best ballads: “Eolian Harp” (1814), “Knight of Togenburg” (1818), “Lalla Ruk” (1821), “Smalholm Castle” (1822), etc. In these ballads, the Russian reader was revealed absolutely new world- the world of the European and Russian Middle Ages, artistically rethought and creatively transformed by the writer’s imagination. It was a poetic dream of modernity about the distant past, about a long-past, but, as it seemed to the romantics, a uniquely wonderful time in the life of mankind.

Zhukovsky was inspired by motifs and plots not only of European pre-romantic and romantic poetry, but also of Russian folklore, as well as events national history. He writes the story “Vadim Novgorodsky” (1803), works on the stage version of the epic about Alyosha Popovich (1809-1810), creates the poem “The Twelve Sleeping Virgins” (1814-1817), a poetic adaptation of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” (1817-1819 ), working on the poem “Vladimir” (1814-1817). Later, in the 30s, he wrote poetic tales: “The Sleeping Princess”, “The Tale of Tsar Berendey”, “The Tale of Ivan Tsarevich and the Gray Wolf”.

The poet was an ardent patriot of his Motherland. During the terrible time of Napoleonic invasion of Russia, he volunteers to join the Moscow militia. On the eve of the Tarutino battle, he wrote the immediately famous poem “The Singer in the Camp of Russian Warriors” (1812). The work is imbued with excited solemnity and deep love for the native land.

Zhukovsky’s creations constituted “an entire period of our literature, an entire period of moral development of our society,” “without Zhukovsky we would not have had Pushkin.”

In the development of Russian poetry in the first quarter of the 19th century. the role is also significant Konstantin Nikolaevich Batyushkov(1787-1855). “What Zhukovsky did for the content of Russian poetry, Batyushkov,” noted Belinsky, “did for its form: the first breathed a living soul into it, the second gave it the beauty of an ideal form.”

Batyushkov's legacy is small in volume - a serious illness at the very beginning of the 20s deprived him of the opportunity to create, but many of his poems are amazingly capacious and perfect.

Unlike Zhukovsky, Batyushkov, in his poems revealed inner world a person in the whole reality of his experiences and feelings - “My Penates” (1811-1812), “The Merry Hour” (1806-1810), “Elysium” (1810), “Ghost” (1810), etc. His poetic images are surprisingly plastic , sculptural, extremely, one might even say, rosary in relief. He gives the reader the opportunity not only to see, but also to touch, smell, and hear what he writes about. Leaving the world of foggy visions, secret sighs and tears, anxious forebodings characteristic of Zhukovsky’s lyre, Batyushkov began to sing of the joys of earthly life and human existence. Under the pen of Batyushkov, Russian lyrics are enriched with new sensations, motives and moods.

In Batyushkov, according to Belinsky, in “the first of the Russian poets artistic element was the predominant element." Aristocratism, grace, elegance - these were the epithets the critic accompanied his analysis of the poet’s work, seeing in Batyushkov Pushkin’s direct teacher, to whom he handed over the “almost finished verse.”

The social illusions of the Patriotic War of 1812 and the liberation campaign of the Russian army of 1813-1814, associated with the hope for the democratization of life in Russia and the abolition of serfdom, gave way to bitter disappointment when yesterday’s victors of Napoleonic hordes collided with the post-war autocratic-serfdom reality. The time of the notorious Arakcheevism is coming - general state bureaucratization, manic “discipline”, military settlements and strict regulation of all aspects of social and cultural life. However, democratic thought is no longer able to put up with the unnaturalness of the existing intranational relations. “Decembrism” emerges - a poetic dream of freedom, born on the soil of romanticism.

The emerging social movement noticeably intensifies literary life. Russian romantics turned to spheres of reality that were new to literature. The source of their artistic inspiration was the history of the country. They poeticized national legends, turned to documents and events of national history, monuments ancient Russian literature. Romantics rediscovered the fabulous, fantasy world, going back to the domestic and Western European folk poetic and mythological consciousness. Finally, in their works, in all its polyphony, the rebellious and mysterious world of the human heart was recreated.

New poetic names are being established in literature. Among them are A. S. Pushkin, A. S. Griboedov, A. A. Delvig, V. K. Kuchelbecker, E. A. Boratynsky, A. A. Bestuzhev-Marlinsky, I. I. Kozlov. Poets and prose writers who made a name for themselves at the beginning of the century are gaining new breath - V. T. Narezhny, D. V. Davydov, P. A. Katenin, P. A. Vyazemsky and others. Decembrist poetry is being formed in the mainstream of the romantic movement.

At the crest of the Decembrist movement, “Woe from Wit” appears (1822-1824) Alexander Sergeevich Griboyedov(1794-1829) - a brilliant comedy that worthily crowned the ideological and artistic quest of Russian literature in the first quarter of the 19th century. It was a kind of synthesis of observations and reflections of Russian social thought on contemporary Russian reality and, at the same time, a truly artistic study of it. In the correlation of characters, scenes, dialogues, monologues and individual remarks, not only a broad picture of the morals of “the present century and the past century” emerged, but the moral, philosophical and political contradictions of Russian society as a whole emerged clearly.

The innovation of Griboyedov's comedy also lay in the “voluminous” depiction of the main character, when the deeply personal and social were closely intertwined and merged into a single, full-blooded character of a man of modern times, aware of his involvement in the life of the people. Despite the absence of “folk” scenes, the people are invisibly present in the comedy - their life, their fate, their rights are, in essence, the main subject of disagreement between Chatsky and Famus’s world. Belinsky felt this acutely, defining “Woe from Wit” as the noblest humanistic “work, an energetic (and, moreover, the first) protest against the vile racial reality, against officials, bribe-takers, libertines, against our secular society, against ignorance, voluntary servility, etc., etc.”

“Woe from Wit” was not only a vivid artistic embodiment of the Decembrist ideology, but also to the highest degree folk work. This also applies to the language of comedy, half of the verses of which, as Pushkin foresaw, have long since become proverbs.

The literary and social movement in Russia in the first quarter of the 19th century took place in a complex ideological, political and artistic struggle. Its powerful incentives were democratic, social and philosophical traditions, the establishment of advanced Decembrist aesthetics and criticism of new social ideals and liberation ideas.

All these processes are reflected in creativity Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin(1799-1837), whose poetic gift reached its maturity by the end of the first quarter of the century, marking new level in the development of Russian literature.