The task of poetics (otherwise - the theory of literature or literature) is to study the methods of constructing literary works. The object of study in poetics is fiction. The method of study is the description and classification of phenomena and their interpretation.
Literature, or literature - as this last name shows - is part of the verbal, or linguistic, activity of man. It follows that in a number of scientific disciplines, literary theory is closely related to the science that studies language, i.e. to linguistics. There are a number of border scientific problems, which can be equally attributed to both problems of linguistics and problems of literary theory. However, there are special questions that belong specifically to poetics. We use language and words constantly in the community for the purpose of human communication. The practical sphere of application of language is everyday “conversations”. In conversation, language is the medium of communication, and our attention and interests are directed exclusively to what is communicated, the “thought”; We usually pay attention to verbal formulation only insofar as we strive to accurately convey to our interlocutor our thoughts and our feelings, and for this we look for expressions that most correspond to our thoughts and emotions. Expressions are created in the process of utterance and are forgotten, disappearing after they reach their goal - instilling in the listener what is required. In this respect, practical speech is unique, because it lives in the conditions of its creation; its nature and form are determined by circumstances of this conversation, the relationship between the speakers, the degree of their mutual understanding, the interests that arise during the conversation, etc. Since the conditions that give rise to conversation are generally unique, the conversation itself is unique. But in verbal creativity there are also such verbal constructions, the meaning of which does not depend on the circumstances of their utterance; formulas that, once they have arisen, do not die out, are repeated and preserved so that they can be reproduced again and do not lose their original meaning when reproduced again. Such fixed, we call the preserved verbal structures literary works. In its elementary form, every successful expression, remembered and repeated, is a literary work. These are sayings, proverbs, sayings, etc. But usually literary works mean constructions of a slightly larger volume.
To consolidate the system of expressions of the work - in other words, its text- it can be different. You can fix the speech in in writing or printed - then we get written literature; it is possible to memorize a text and transmit it orally - then we get oral literature, which receives its development mainly in an environment that does not know writing. The so-called folklore - folk oral literature - is preserved and arises mainly in layers alien to literacy.
Thus, a literary work has two properties: 1) independence from the random everyday conditions of utterance and 2) the fixed immutability of the text. Literature is an intrinsically valuable fixed speech.
The very nature of these features shows that there is no firm boundary between practical speech and literature. Often we record our practical speech, which is random and temporary, according to the conditions of its transmission to the interlocutor. We write a letter to someone to whom we cannot directly address with live speech. A letter may or may not be a literary work. On the other hand, a literary work may remain unrecorded; being created at the moment of its reproduction (improvisation), it can disappear. These are improvised plays, poems (impromptu), oratory, etc. Playing human life the same role as purely literary works, fulfilling their function and taking on their meaning, these improvisations are part of literature, despite their random, transient nature. On the other hand, the independence of literature from the conditions of its origin should be understood restrictively: we must not forget that all literature is unchanged only within more or less wide limits. historical era and understandable to segments of the population of a certain cultural and social level. I will not multiply examples of borderline linguistic phenomena; I only want to point out with these examples that in sciences like poetics, there is no need to strive to strictly legally delineate the areas being studied, there is no need to look for mathematical or natural science definitions. It is enough if there is a number of phenomena that undoubtedly belong to the area being studied - the presence of phenomena, only more or less possessing a marked attribute, so to speak, standing on the borders of the area under study, does not deprive us of the right to study this area of phenomena and cannot discredit the chosen definition.
The field of literature is not united. In literature we can outline two broad classes of works. The first class, to which scientific treatises, journalistic works, etc. belong, always has an explicit, unconditional, objective purpose of statement, lying outside the purely literary activity person. A scientific or educational treatise aims to convey objective knowledge about something that really exists; a political article aims to motivate the reader to take some action. This area of literature is called prose in the broad sense of the word. But there is literature that does not have this objective, obvious purpose lying on the surface. A typical feature of this literature is the treatment of fictitious and conventional objects. Even if the author has a message to the reader scientific truth(popular science novels) or influence his behavior (propaganda literature), then this is done through arousing other interests contained in the literary work itself. While in prose literature the object of immediate interest always lies outside the work - in this second area, interest is directed towards the work itself. This area of literature is called poetry(in a broad sense).
The interest awakened in us by poetry and the feelings that arise when perceiving poetic works are psychologically related to the interest and feelings aroused by the perception of works art, music, painting, dance, ornament - in other words, this interest is aesthetic or artistic. Therefore poetry is also called fiction as opposed to prose - Not fiction . We will use these terms primarily, due to the fact that the words “poetry” and “prose” have another meaning, which will often have to be used in further presentation.
The discipline that studies the construction of non-fiction works is called rhetoric; discipline that studies the design of works of art - poetics. Rhetoric and poetics form a general theory of literature.
Poetics is not the only one who studies fiction. There are a number of other disciplines that study the same object. These disciplines differ from each other in their approach to the phenomena being studied.
A historical approach to works of art is provided by the history of literature. A literary historian studies every work as an indivisible, integral unity, as an individual and valuable phenomenon in its own right among other individual phenomena. Analyzing individual parts and aspects of a work, he strives only to understand and interpret the whole. This study is complemented and united by historical coverage of what is being studied, i.e. establishing connections between literary phenomena and their significance in the evolution of literature. Thus, the historian studies the grouping of literary schools and styles, their succession, the importance of tradition in literature, and the degree of originality of individual writers and their works. Describing the general course of development of literature, the historian interprets this difference, discovering the reasons for this evolution, which lie both within literature itself and in the relationship of literature to other phenomena human culture, in whose environment literature develops and with whom it is in constant relationship. Literary history is a branch general history culture.
Another approach is theoretical. With a theoretical approach literary phenomena are exposed generalization, and therefore are considered not in their individuality, but as the results of the application of general laws of construction of literary works. Each work is deliberately decomposed into its component parts; the construction of the work differs techniques similar construction, i.e. ways of combining verbal material into artistic unities. These techniques are the direct object of poetics. If attention is paid to the historical genesis, to the origin of these techniques, then we have historical poetics, which traces the historical fate of such techniques isolated in the study.
But in general poetics what is being studied is not the origin of poetic devices, but their artistic function. Each technique is studied from the point of view of its artistic expediency, i.e. analyzes why this technique is used and what artistic effect it achieves. In general poetics, functional study literary device and is the guiding principle in the description and classification of the phenomena being studied.
Nevertheless, although the methods and tasks of theoretical study differ significantly from the methods and tasks of historical disciplines, an evolutionary point of view must always be present in poetics. If in poetics the question of historical significance literary work as a whole, considered as some organic system, then the study and interpretation of the immediate artistic effect should always be carried out against the background of the usual, historically established application of this technique. One and the same technique changes its artistic function depending, for example, on whether it is a sign literary modernism and is felt as unusual, breaking tradition, or it is an element of this tradition, a sign of the “old school”.
There is another approach to literary works, presented in normative poetics. The task of normative poetics is not an objective description of existing techniques, but a value judgment about them and the prescription of certain techniques as the only logical ones. Normative poetics aims to teach how literary works should be written. Each literary school has its own views on literature, its own rules and, therefore, its own normative poetics. Literary codes, expressed in literary manifestos and declarations, in directional criticism, in professed by various literary circles belief systems, and represent various forms of normative poetics. The history of literature is partly a revelation of the real content of normative poetics that determines being individual works and the evolution of this content in changes in literary schools.
What was called “poetics” at the beginning of the 19th century was a mixture of problems of general and normative poetics. The “rules” were not only described, but also prescribed. This poetics was essentially the normative poetics of French classicism, established in the 17th century. and dominated literature for two centuries. Given the relative slowness of literary evolution, this poetics could seem unshakable to contemporaries, and its demands could seem inherent in the very nature of verbal art. But in early XIX V. there was a literary split between the classics and the romantics, who led the new poetics; after romanticism came naturalism; then at the end of the century symbolism, futurism, etc. The rapid change of literary schools, especially noticeable at the present time, which is revolutionary in all areas of human culture, proves the illusory nature of the desire to find a universal normative poetics. Any literary norm put forward by one movement is usually met with negation in the opposite literary school. Despite the fact that each literary school usually claims that its aesthetic principles are universally binding, with the fall literary influence schools are falling and its principles are being replaced by new ones in a new movement that replaces the old one. It is impossible now to build any kind of normative poetics that claims to be stable, since the crisis of art, expressed in the rapid change of literary movements and their changeability, has not yet passed.
Here we will not set ourselves normative tasks, being content with an objective description and interpretation of literary material, i.e. Let us confine ourselves to questions of general poetics.
In choosing the material we will mainly refer to XIX literature V. as the closest to us. We will, if possible, avoid contacting literary material until the 17th century, for it was from the 17th century. History begins in Europe new literature, continuous transmission begins literary tradition from generation to generation, and only a few works created earlier have an impact on the work of later eras, and even these works (such as ancient literature, literature eastern peoples) are so modified, refracted through the conventional interpretation of modern times, that it is difficult to talk about their direct and holistic impact on the literary tradition.
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The relationship between literature and utterance will be clarified later.
If the genesis of techniques and works is considered within the framework of individual creativity, we have a “psychology of creativity” that solves the questions of how and why a given writer created.
Topic 1. Poetics
I. Dictionaries
1) Sierotwie?ski S. S?ownik termin?w lierackich.
P. - “formerly identical with the theory of literature, is currently interpreted as its part, namely the theory of a literary work, the science of artistic means, linguistic, compositional, typical structures of literary works, genera, genres, varieties. The definition is also used to designate the science of poetry as opposed to prose" (S. 195).
2) Wilpert G. von. Sachw?rterbuch der Literatur.
P. - "the doctrine and science about the essence, genres and forms of poetry - about their inherent content, technique, structures and visual means; as a theory of poetry - the basis (core) of literary criticism and part of aesthetics, but also a prerequisite for the history of literature and criticism" ( S. 688).
3) Aikhenvald Yu. Poetics // Dictionary literary terms: In 2 vols. T. II. Stlb. 633-636.
P. - "the theory of poetry, the science of poetic creativity, which sets itself the goal of elucidating its origin, laws, forms and meaning." "... no matter how great the importance of psychological and historical poetics, it does not exhaust poetics in general. Not only along with historical, empirical, philological poetics, but perhaps even ahead of it, there should be philosophical poetics, deeply penetrating into the essence and spirit of poetic art."
4) Ivanov Vyach.Vs. Poetics // Brief literary encyclopedia(KLE). T. 5. P. 936-943:
"P.<...>- the science of the structure of lit. works and aesthetic system. means used in them. Consists of a general P. that studies the artist. means and laws of constructing any work; descriptive P., which deals with the description of the structure of specific works of individual authors or entire periods, and historical P., which studies the development of literary art. funds. With a broader understanding, poetry coincides with the theory of literature; with a narrower understanding, it coincides with the study of poetry. language or art speech (see: Stylistics).
GENERAL P. explores possible artistic methods. embodiment of the writer’s plan and the laws of combination in various ways depending on the genre, type of literary and type of literary.<...>Artist means can be classified into different levels, located between the idea (which is the highest level) and its final embodiment in the verbal fabric."<...>
“Descriptive P. aims to recreate the path from the idea to the final text, through which the researcher can fully penetrate the author’s intention. At the same time different levels and parts of the work are considered as a whole<...>Historical P. studies the development of both individual artists. techniques (epithets, metaphors, rhymes, etc.) and categories (artistic time, space, basic opposition of features), as well as entire systems of such techniques and categories characteristic of a particular era.”
5) Gasparov M.L. Poetics // Literary encyclopedic dictionary(LES). pp. 295-296.
P. - "the science of the system of means of expression in literary works<...>In the expanded sense of the word, literature coincides with the theory of literature; in the narrowed sense, it coincides with one of the areas of theoretical literature. P. (see below). As a field of literary theory, P. studies the specifics of literature. genres and genres, trends and directions, styles and methods, explores the laws of internal communication and the relationship between different levels of art. the whole<...>Since all means of expression in literature ultimately come down to language, literature can also be defined as the science of art. using language means (see Language of fiction). Verbal (i.e. linguistic) text of the production. is the only one. material form of existence of its content<...>P.'s goal is to highlight and systematize the elements of the text involved in the formation of aesthetics. impressions of the production (see Structure of a literary work).<...>Usually a distinction is made between general (theoretical or systematic - "macropoetics"), particular (or actually descriptive - "micropoetics") and historical.
General P. is divided into three areas that study, respectively, the sound, verbal and figurative structure of the text; the goal of general P. is to compile a complete systematization. a repertoire of techniques (aesthetically effective elements) covering all three of these areas. [Further - about poetry, stylistics and “themes” - N. T.].<...>Part of P. is engaged in the description of lit. prod. in all the lists. above aspects, which allows you to create a “model” - an individual aesthetic system. effective properties of the work<...>Historical P. studies the evolution of the department. poetic techniques and their systems with the help of comparative historical literary criticism, identifying common features poetic systems different cultures and reducing them either (genetically) to common source or (typologically) to the universal laws of human consciousness."
6) Broitman S.N. Historical poetics // Literary terms(materials for the dictionary). Vol. 2.
"I. p. is a section of poetics that studies the genesis and development of an aesthetic object and its architectonics, as they manifest themselves in the evolution of meaningful artistic forms. I. p. is connected with theoretical poetics by relations of complementarity. If theoretical poetics develops a system of literary categories and gives them conceptually -logical analysis, through which the system of the subject itself (fiction) is revealed, then I. p. studies the origin and development of this system (p. 40).
II. Textbooks, teaching aids
1) Tomashevsky B.V. Theory of literature. Poetics.
“The task of poetics (otherwise known as the theory of literature or literature) is to study the methods of constructing literary works. The object of study in poetics is fiction. The method of study is the description and classification of phenomena and their interpretation” (p. 22).
"The field of literature is not united<...>The discipline that studies the construction of non-fiction works is called rhetoric; the discipline that studies the construction of works of art is poetics. Rhetoric and poetics form a general theory of literature" (pp. 24-25).
“With a theoretical approach, literary phenomena are subject to generalization, and therefore are considered not in their individuality, but as the results of the application of general laws of construction of literary works<...>In general poetics, the functional study of literary device is the guiding principle in the description and classification of the phenomena being studied" (p. 25-26).
2) Zhirmunsky V.M. Introduction to Literary Studies: A Course of Lectures. pp. 227-244.
“We call poetry the science of literature as an art, the science of poetic art, the science of poetry (if we use the word “poetry” in a broader sense than the word is sometimes used, as embracing the entire field of literature), in other words, the theory of poetry.” .
“The general philosophical and aesthetic prerequisites of poetic art are considered by the theory of literature. Poetics, based on the main conclusions of the theory of literature, studies the system of means of expression used by poetry” (p. 227).
“Next to historical poetics and on the basis of historical poetics, theoretical poetics should be built, poetics that generalizes historical experience...”
"An artistic image is created in poetry with the help of language. Therefore, we can say that the first department of poetics, its lower floor, should be oriented towards linguistics< ... >the main sections of the theory of poetic language are poetic phonetics, poetic vocabulary and poetic syntax" (p. 240). "Usually poetic vocabulary and poetic syntax are combined under the general name of stylistics. Then we get metrics and stylistics as two sections of the theory of poetic language: metrics relating to the external side of the word, the sounds of the word; and stylistics relating to poetic language in its internal features, from the meaning of words, and not from the external sound form" (p. 241-242).
“But it would be a mistake to assume that questions of poetic language exhaust the questions of poetics. Although the image in poetry is concretized in language, it is not exhausted by language<...>There is a side to the art of poetry that, from any point of view, cannot be dissolved in linguistics. This can be said about the problems of theme and composition work of art(p.243).
“But only to a very small extent can we talk about these aspects of poetics outside the problem literary genre <...>It is practically quite convenient to distinguish - as was done in the old poetics - metrics, stylistics and the theory of literary genres, bearing in mind that in the last section we will include the entire complex set of questions that rises above the theory of poetic language" (p. 244).
3) Farino Jerzy. Introduction to literary criticism. Wstep do literaturoznawstwa. S. 57-67.
“In some cases, the word “poetics” is used as a synonym for the theory of literature. Then it means systematized information about the properties of an artistic literary work and the literary process. In others - and much more often - poetics is understood as one of the components of the theory of literature. The range of its issues is then limited only to the properties and laws of a literary work, which is sometimes called the theory of a literary work< ... >poetics systematizes the observed (and possible) properties of literary texts and develops tools for their analysis< ... >She considers every property of a literary text from a double perspective - both from the point of view of its actual function and from the point of view of its relationship to the previous states of literary texts" (p. 58).
“Poetics, which focuses its attention on the properties of specific works and draws conclusions based on a review of texts, is usually called descriptive” (p. 62).
"Poetics focused on the historicity of the properties of literature and the history of these properties, history understood not only as the appearance and disappearance, but also as the transformation of properties, such poetics took shape<...>as poetics and historical [link to art. in KLE - N.T.] (p. 64).
“If in the approach to the text of a work from the point of view of descriptive poetics the moment of statement or only cognition prevails, then in the approach from the point of view of structure of structural poetics, the moment of explanation (interpretation) prevails - to the noted properties of the text, structural poetics raises, as a rule, the question of their function, as well as their mutual relationships, connections."
“The unit of descriptive poetics is the property it marks (device, trope, etc.), while the unit of structural poetics is t e x t” (p. 64).
"Outside of language, a literary work is unthinkable<...>language is the material carrier of a work - like canvas and paints in painting, like sounds in music, like stone or wood in sculpture. But if in painting, for example, the function of canvas and paints (as substance, not color) may be limited to this, then in literature, on the contrary, a work of art is created due to all possible properties of language, both physical and semantic.
The section of poetics that studies the properties of language (speech) used in literature and their functions is usually called s t i l i s t i c o .
[About the “world” to which the statement is addressed]: “For this aspect, most poetics do not find their own separate name, but it is usually taken into account precisely in those chapters of works that are devoted to composition, theme, depicted world. After Tomashevsky, we will not call this section of poetics a very apt term for composition."
"A certain part of literary works is characterized by a special rhythmic organization of their linguistic material<...>. The section of poetics that deals with precisely this aspect of a work is usually called poetry" (p. 66).
[About genders and genres]: “...these questions are dealt with by the section of poetics called gen ology” (p. 67).
III. Special works
1) Zhirmunsky V.M. Tasks of poetics // Zhirmunsky V.M. Theory of literature. Poetics. Stylistics. pp. 15-55.
"Poetics is a science that studies poetry as an art<...>historical and theoretical poetics" (p. 15).
"The traditional division into form and content<...>was opposed<...>division into material and reception."
"All art uses some material borrowed from the natural world<...>as a result of processing, a natural fact (material) is elevated to the dignity of an aesthetic fact and becomes a work of art<...>The study of poetry, like any other art, requires the determination of its material and the techniques with the help of which a work of art is created from this material” (p. 18).
"... An exhaustive definition of the characteristics of an aesthetic object and aesthetic experience, by the very essence of the question, lies beyond the boundaries of poetics as a private science and is the task of philosophical aesthetics<...>Our task in constructing poetics is to proceed from completely indisputable material and, regardless of the question of the essence of artistic experience, to study the structure of the aesthetic object, in in this case- works of artistic expression" (p. 23).
"The task of general, or theoretical, poetics is the systematic study of poetic techniques, their comparative description and classification: theoretical poetics must build, based on specific historical material, the system of scientific concepts that the historian of poetic art needs when solving the individual problems that confront him. Since the material of poetry is the word,<...>Each chapter of the science of language must correspond to a special chapter of theoretical poetics" (p. 28).
2) Bakhtin M.M. The problem of content, material and form in verbal artistic creativity // Bakhtin M. Questions of literature and aesthetics. pp. 6-71.
"...without a systematic concept of the aesthetic, both in its difference from the cognitive and ethical, and in its connection with them in the unity of culture, it is impossible even to single out the subject subject to the study of poetics - art This work in the word is from the mass of works of a different kind; and this systematic concept, of course, is introduced every time by the researcher, but completely uncritically" (p. 9).
"Poetics, defined systematically, must be the aesthetics of the verbal artistic creativity"(p. 10).
"When a sculptor works on marble<...>created sculptural form is an aesthetically significant form of the human body<...>the attitude of the artist and the contemplator to marble as to a specific physical body is of a secondary, derivative nature" (p. 15).
“...form - on the one hand, truly material, entirely realized on the material and attached to it, on the other hand - axiologically takes us beyond the boundaries of the work as an organized material, as a thing...” (p. 24).
3) Medvedev P.N. (Bakhtin M.M.). Formal method in literary criticism.
[Subject, tasks and method of sociological poetics].
"What is a literary work? What is its structure? What are the elements of this structure and what are their artistic functions? What is the genre, style, plot, theme, motive, hero, meter, rhythm, melody, etc. All these questions<...>- all this is the field of sociological poetics" (p. 37).
"...we can talk about the need for a special historical poetics as an intermediary link between theoretical sociological poetics and literary history<...>Each definition of sociological poetics must be a definition adequate to the entire evolution of the form being defined" (p. 38).
“The tasks of sociological poetics are primarily specific, descriptive and analytical. To highlight a literary work as such, to give an exposition of its structure, to determine its elements and their functions - these are its main tasks<...>Before looking for the laws of development of literary forms, you need to know what these forms are" (p. 41).
4) Mukarzhovsky J. Poetics // Mukarzhovsky J. Structural poetics. pp. 31-34.
"Poetics is the aesthetics and theory of poetic art.<...>In the process of its development, poetics, experiencing various gravitations, sometimes draws closer, and often merges with any of the related sciences, but even in those cases when it would seem to be on foreign territory, the ultimate goal of all questions, even similar with the problems of the history of literature, sociology, etc., for her it is always the illumination of poetic structure. Hence the close connection between poetics and linguistics, a science that studies the laws of the most important material of poetry - language.<...>Thus, focusing attention on artistic construction means, as is clear from all that has been said, not a narrowing of the problematic and not limiting it to questions of form, but the establishment of a single angle of view that finds application in solving the most diverse problems of poetic art."
5) Jacobson R. Questions of poetics. Postscript to the book of the same name (1973) // Jacobson Roman. Works on poetics. pp. 80-98.
“We can say that poetics is the linguistic study of the poetic function of verbal messages in general and poetry in particular.<...>The subject of study of a linguist who analyzes a poetic text is “literariness,” or, in other words, the transformation of speech into a poetic work and the system of techniques through which this transformation is accomplished.”
“Poetics, which deals with the consideration of poetic works through the prism of language and studies the dominant function in poetry, by definition is the starting point in the interpretation of poetic texts, which, of course, does not exclude the possibility of their study from the factual, psychological or psychoanalytic, as well as sociological side, but specialists in these disciplines, we must not forget that all functions of a work are subordinated to the dominant function, and every researcher must proceed, first of all, from the fact that before him is the poetic fabric of a poetic text" (p. 81).
6) Todorov Ts. Poetics / Trans. A.K.Zholkovsky // Structuralism: pros and cons. pp. 37-113.
"Poetics destroys<...>symmetry between interpretation and science in the field of literary studies.
Unlike the interpretation of individual works, it does not strive to clarify their meaning, but to understand the patterns that determine their appearance. On the other hand, unlike sciences such as psychology, sociology, etc., it searches for these laws within literature itself<...>The object of structural poetics is not the literary work in itself: it is interested in the properties of that special type of utterance, which is literary text" (p. 41).
“...the object of poetics is not a set of empirical facts (literary works), but some abstract structure (literature)” (p. 45).
“The most closely related to it are other disciplines that study types of text and together form the field of activity of rhetoric, understood in the broadest sense - as the general science of texts (discours)” (p. 46).
QUESTIONS
1. Compare and formulate the criteria by which poetics is divided either into general, particular (descriptive) and historical, or into theoretical and historical.
2. Compare different interpretations of the relationship between poetics and philosophical aesthetics, on the one hand, and with linguistics, on the other. Try to explain them.
The problem of adequacy of interpretation.
Description, analysis and interpretation of a work of art.
The concept of historical poetics of Veselovsky A.N.
Poetics. Types of poetics.
Lecture outline
Analysis and philological interpretation of a work of art.
Poetics and methodology of literary criticism.
Lecture 2
Additional SI units for plane and solid angles
The unit of a plane angle is radian (rad) - the angle between 2 radii of a circle, the arc between which is equal in length to the radius, equal to 57 ° 17 / 44.8 //.
The unit of solid angle is the steradian (sr) - a solid angle whose vertex is located at the center of the sphere and which cuts out on the surface of the sphere an area equal to the area of a square with a side length equal to the radius of the sphere.
W = 2p (1-cos a/2)
1W = Ð 65 ° 32 / , angle p av = Ð 120 ° , angle 2p av = Ð 180 ° , other units are arbitrary.
Poetics(Greek poiētiké téchnē - poetic art) is the science of the system of means of expression in literary works, one of the oldest literary disciplines.
In ancient times (from Aristotle (IV century BC) to the classicist theorist Boileau (XVII century), the term “poetics" denoted the doctrine of verbal art in general. This word was synonymous with what is now called the theory of literature. Currently V in the expanded sense of the word poetics coincides with literary theory, in a narrowed– from one of the areas of theoretical poetics.
How field of literary theory poetics studies the specifics literary families and genres, trends and directions, styles and methods, explores the laws of internal connection and correlation of various levels of the artistic whole. Depending on which aspect (and scope of the concept) is put at the center of the study, it is customary to speak, for example, about the poetics of romanticism, the poetics of the novel, the poetics of the work of a writer as a whole or one work.
In Russia, theoretical poetics began to take shape in the 1910s and strengthened in the 1920s. This fact marked a serious shift in the understanding of literature. In the 19th century, the subject of study was primarily not the works themselves, but what was embodied and refracted in them ( public consciousness, legends and myths, plots and motifs as the common heritage of culture; biography and spiritual experience of the writer): scientists looked, as it were, through the works, rather than focusing on them. In other words, in the 19th century, scientists were primarily interested in the spiritual, worldview, and general cultural preconditions of artistic creativity. Literary scholars have been primarily concerned with studying the conditions in which works were created, with much less attention paid to the analysis of the texts themselves. The formation of theoretical poetics contributed to a change in the situation; the main object became the works themselves, but everything else (psychology, views and biography of the author, social genesis literary creativity and the impact of works on the reader) is considered as something auxiliary and secondary.
Since all means of expression in literature ultimately come down to language, poetics can also be defined as the science of the artistic use of language. The verbal (that is, linguistic) text of a work is the only material form of existence of its content; according to it, the consciousness of readers and researchers constructs the content of the work, seeking either to recreate the author’s intention (“Who was Hamlet for Shakespeare?”) or to fit it into the culture of changing eras (“Who was Hamlet for Shakespeare?”) What does Hamlet mean to us? Both approaches ultimately rely on a verbal text studied by poetics. Hence the importance of poetics in the system of literary criticism.
The goal of poetics is to isolate and systematize the elements of the text that participate in the formation of the aesthetic impression of the work. All elements of artistic speech participate in this, but to varying degrees: for example, in lyric poems, plot elements play a small role and rhythm and phonics play a large role, and in narrative prose, vice versa. Every culture has its own set of means that distinguish literary works from non-literary ones: restrictions are imposed on rhythm (verse), vocabulary and syntax (“poetic language”), themes (favorite types of characters and events). Against the background of this system of means, its violations are no less powerful aesthetic stimulant: “prosaisms” in poetry, the introduction of new unconventional themes in prose, etc. A researcher who belongs to the same culture as the work he is studying better senses these poetic interruptions, and the background takes them for granted. A researcher of a foreign culture, on the contrary, first of all feels the general system of techniques (mainly in its differences from the one familiar to him) and less - the system of its violations. The study of the poetic system “from within” a given culture leads to the construction normative poetics(more conscious, as in the era of classicism, or less conscious, as in European literature XIX century), research “from the outside” - to build descriptive poetics. To XIX century While regional literatures were closed and traditionalistic, the normative type of poetics dominated. Normative poetics focused on the experience of one of the literary movements and substantiated it. The emergence of world literature (starting from the era of romanticism) puts forward the task of creating descriptive poetics.
Usually vary general poetics(theoretical or systematic – “macropoetics”) private(or actually descriptive – “micropoetics”) and historical.
General poetics, which explains the universal properties of verbal and artistic works, is divided into three areas that study, respectively sound, verbal And figurative structure of the text.
The goal of general poetics– compile a complete systematized repertoire of techniques (aesthetically effective elements) covering all these three areas.
The sound structure of works is studiedphonics(sound organization of artistic speech) and rhythm , and in relation to the verse - also metrics And stanza(these concepts are usually not differentiated, and if they are, then metric means a combination of sounds and combining them into feet, and rhythm means a combination of feet into lines).
Since the primary material for study in this case is provided by poetic texts, this area is often called (too narrowly) poetry.
IN verbal structure features are being studied vocabulary, morphology And syntax works; the corresponding area is called stylistics (there is no consensus on the extent to which stylistics as linguistic and literary disciplines coincide with each other). Features of vocabulary (“selection of words”) and syntax (“connection of words”) have long been studied by poetics and rhetoric, where they were considered as stylistic figures and tropes. The features of morphology (“the poetry of grammar”) have become a subject of consideration in poetics only recently.
IN figurative structure works study images (characters and objects), motives (actions and deeds), plots (connected sets of actions); this area is called “topics” (traditional name), “thematics” (B. Tomashevsky) or “poetics” in the narrow sense of the word (B. Yarho). If poetry and stylistics have been considered in poetics since ancient times, then topic, on the contrary, has been little developed, since it was believed that art world works are no different from the real world; therefore, a generally accepted classification of the material has not yet been developed.
Private poetics is engaged in the study of works in all of the above aspects, which makes it possible to create a “model” - an individual system of aesthetically effective properties of the work.
In this case, the word “poetics” defines a certain line literary process, namely, the attitudes and principles of individual writers carried out in the work, as well as artistic directions and entire eras. Famous Russian scientists have written monographs on the poetics of ancient Russian literature, the poetics of romanticism, the poetics of Gogol, Dostoevsky, and Chekhov. At the origins of this terminological tradition The study of Veselovsky A.N. is worthwhile. creativity of Zhukovsky V.A., where there is a chapter “Romantic poetics of Zhukovsky”.
Main problem private poetics - composition , that is, the mutual correlation of all aesthetically significant elements of the work (phonic, metric, stylistic, figurative plot and general composition that unites them) in their functional relationship with the artistic whole.
There is a significant difference between small and large literary form: in a small number of connections between elements, although large, is not inexhaustible, and the role of each in the system of the whole can be shown comprehensively; in a large form this is impossible, and a significant part of the internal connections remains unaccounted for as aesthetically imperceptible (for example, the connection between phonics and plot).
The final concepts to which all means of expression can be raised during analysis are the “image of the world” (with its main characteristics, artistic time And artistic space) and the “image of the author,” the interaction of which provides a “point of view” that determines everything important in the structure of the work. These three concepts emerged in poetics from the experience of studying literature of the 19th and 20th centuries; Before this, European poetics was content with a simplified distinction between three literary genres: drama (giving the image of the world), lyric poetry (giving the image of the author) and the intermediate epic between them.
The basis of private poetics (“micropoetics”) are descriptions of individual works, but more generalized descriptions of groups of works (one cycle, one author, genre, literary direction, historical era). Such descriptions can be formalized into a list of initial elements of the model and a list of rules for their connection; as a result of the consistent application of these rules, the process of gradual creation of a work from the thematic and ideological concept to the final verbal design is imitated (the so-called generative poetics ).
Historical poetics studies the evolution of individual poetic techniques and their systems with the help of comparative historical literary criticism, identifying common features of the poetic systems of different cultures and reducing them either (genetically) to a common source or (typologically) to universal patterns of human consciousness.
The roots of literary literature go back to oral literature, which represents the main material of historical poetics, which sometimes makes it possible to reconstruct the course of development of individual images, stylistic figures and poetic meters from deep (for example, pan-Indo-European antiquity).
The subject of historical poetics, which exists as part of comparative historical literary criticism, is the evolution of verbal and artistic forms (having meaningfulness), as well as the creative principles of writers: their aesthetic attitudes and artistic worldview.
The main problem of historical poetics is genre in the broadest sense of the word, from artistic literature as a whole to such varieties as “European love elegy”, “classic tragedy”, “psychological novel”, etc. - that is, a historically established set of poetic elements of various kinds that cannot be derived from each other , but associated with each other as a result of long coexistence. The boundaries separating literature from non-literature, and the boundaries separating genre from genre, are changeable, and eras of relative stability of these poetic systems alternate with eras of decanonization and formal creation; These changes are studied by historical poetics.
The task of poetics (otherwise the theory of literature or literature) is to study the methods of constructing literary works*. The object of study in poetics is fiction. The method of study is the description and classification of phenomena and their interpretation.Literature, or literature - as this last name shows - is part of the verbal, or linguistic, activity of man. It follows that in a number of scientific disciplines, literary theory is closely related to the science that studies language, i.e. to linguistics*. There are a number of borderline scientific problems that can equally be attributed to both problems of linguistics and problems of literary theory. However, there are special questions that belong specifically to poetics. We use language and words constantly in the community for the purpose of human communication. The practical sphere of application of language is everyday “conversations”. In conversation, language is the medium of communication, and our attention and interests are directed exclusively to what is communicated, the “thought”; We usually pay attention to verbal formulation only insofar as we strive to accurately convey to our interlocutor our thoughts and our feelings, and for this we look for expressions that most correspond to our thoughts and emotions. Expressions are created in the process of utterance and are forgotten, disappearing after they reach their goal - instilling in the listener what is required. In this respect, practical speech is unique, because it lives in the conditions of its creation; its character and form are determined by the circumstances of the conversation, the relationship between the speakers, the degree of their mutual understanding, the interests that arise during the conversation, etc. Since the conditions that give rise to conversation are generally unique, the conversation itself is unique. But in verbal creativity there are also verbal constructions, the meaning of which does not depend on the circumstances of their utterance; formulas that, once they have arisen, do not die out, are repeated and preserved so that they can be reproduced again and do not lose their original meaning when reproduced again. We call such fixed, preserved verbal structures literary works. In its elementary form, every successful expression, remembered and repeated, is a literary work. These are sayings, proverbs, sayings, etc. But usually literary works mean constructions of a slightly larger volume.
The system of expressions of a work—in other words, its text—can be consolidated in different ways. You can consolidate speech in written or printed form - then we get written literature; it is possible to memorize a text and transmit it orally - then we get oral literature, which develops mainly in an environment that does not know writing. The so-called folklore - folk oral literature - is preserved and arises mainly in layers alien to literacy.
Thus, a literary work has two properties: 1) independence from the random everyday conditions of utterance * and 2) the fixed immutability of the text. Literature is an intrinsically valuable fixed speech
The very nature of these features shows that there is no firm boundary between practical speech and literature. Often we record our practical speech, which is random and temporary, according to the conditions of its transmission to the interlocutor. We write a letter to someone to whom we cannot directly address with live speech. A letter may or may not be a literary work. On the other hand, a literary work may remain unrecorded; being created at the moment of its reproduction (improvisation), it can disappear. These are improvised plays, poems (impromptu), oratory, etc. Playing the same role in human life as purely literary works, fulfilling their function and taking on their meaning, these improvisations are part of literature, despite their random, transient nature. On the other hand, the independence of literature from the conditions of its origin should be understood restrictively: we must not forget that all literature is unchanged only within more or less wide limits of a historical era and is understandable to layers of the population of a certain cultural and social level. I will not multiply examples of borderline linguistic phenomena; I only want to point out with these examples that in sciences like poetics, there is no need to strive to strictly legally delineate the areas being studied, there is no need to look for mathematical or natural science definitions. It is enough if there is a number of phenomena that undoubtedly belong to the area under study - the presence of phenomena that only more or less possess a noted attribute, so to speak, standing on the boundaries of the area under study, does not deprive us of the right to study this area of phenomena and cannot discredit the chosen definition.
The field of literature is not united. In literature we can outline two broad classes of works. The first class, to which scientific treatises, journalistic works, etc. belong, always has an explicit, unconditional, objective purpose of expression that lies outside the purely literary activity of man. A scientific or educational treatise aims to convey objective knowledge about something that really exists; a political article aims to motivate the reader to take some action. This area of literature is called prose in the broad sense of the word. But there is literature that does not have this objective, obvious purpose lying on the surface. A typical feature of this literature is the treatment of fictitious and conventional objects. Even if the author has the goal of communicating scientific truth to the reader (popular science novels) or influencing his behavior (propaganda literature), this is done by arousing other interests contained in the literary work itself. While in prose literature the object of immediate interest always lies outside the work, in this second area interest is directed towards the work itself. This area of literature is called poetry (in a broad sense).
The interest awakened in us by poetry and the feelings that arise when perceiving poetic works are psychologically related to the interest and feelings aroused by the perception of works of art, music, painting, dance, ornament - in other words, this interest is aesthetic or artistic. Therefore, poetry is also called fiction in contrast to prose - non-fiction*. We will use these terms primarily, due to the fact that the words “poetry” and “prose” have another meaning, which will often have to be used in further presentation.
The discipline that studies the construction of non-fiction works is called rhetoric; the discipline that studies the construction of works of art is poetics. Rhetoric and poetics form a general theory of literature.
Poetics is not the only one who studies fiction. There are a number of other disciplines that study the same object. These disciplines differ from each other in their approach to the phenomena being studied.
A historical approach to works of art is provided by the history of literature. A literary historian studies every work as an indivisible, integral unity, as an individual and valuable phenomenon in its own right among other individual phenomena. Analyzing individual parts and aspects of a work, he strives only to understand and interpret the whole. This study is complemented and united by historical coverage of what is being studied, i.e. establishing connections between literary phenomena and their significance in the evolution of literature. Thus, the historian studies the grouping of literary schools and styles, their succession, the importance of tradition in literature, and the degree of originality of individual writers and their works. Describing the general course of development of literature, the historian interprets this difference, discovering the reasons for this evolution, which lie both within literature itself and in the relationship of literature to other phenomena of human culture, in the environment of which literature develops and with which it is in constant relationship. Literary history is a branch of general cultural history.
Another approach is theoretical. With a theoretical approach, literary phenomena are subject to generalization, and therefore are considered not in their individuality, but as the results of the application of general laws of construction of literary works. Each work is deliberately decomposed into its component parts; in the construction of the work, the methods of such construction differ, i.e. ways of combining verbal material into artistic unities*. These techniques are the direct object of poetics. If attention is paid to the historical genesis, to the origin of these techniques, then we have historical poetics, which traces the historical destinies of such techniques isolated in the study
But in general poetics* it is not the origin of poetic devices that is studied, but the non-artistic function**. Each technique is studied from the point of view of its artistic expediency, i.e. analyzes why this technique is used and what artistic effect it achieves. In general poetics, the functional study of literary device is the guiding principle in the description and classification of the phenomena being studied.
Nevertheless, although the methods and tasks of theoretical study differ significantly from the methods and tasks of historical disciplines, an evolutionary point of view must always be present in poetics*. If in poetics the question of the historical significance of a literary work as a whole, considered as some organic system, is not significant, then the study and interpretation of the immediate artistic effect should always be carried out against the background of the usual, historically established application of this technique. The same technique changes its artistic function depending, for example, on whether it is a sign of literary modernism and is felt as unusual, violating tradition, or whether it is an element of this tradition, a sign of the “old school”.
There is another approach to literary works, represented in normative poetics. The task of normative poetics is not an objective description of existing techniques, but a value judgment about them and the prescription of certain techniques as the only logical ones. Normative poetics aims to teach how literary works should be written. Each literary school has its own views on literature, its own rules and, consequently, its own normative poetics. Literary codes, expressed in literary manifestos and declarations, in directional criticism, in belief systems professed by various literary circles, represent various forms of normative poetics. The history of literature is partly a revelation of the real content of normative poetics, which determines the existence of individual works and the evolution of this content in changes in literary schools.
What was called “poetics” at the beginning of the 19th century was a mixture of problems of general and normative poetics. The “rules” were not only described, but also prescribed. This poetics was essentially the normative poetics of French classicism, established in the 17th century. and dominated literature for two centuries. Given the relative slowness of literary evolution, this poetics could seem unshakable to contemporaries, and its demands could seem inherent in the very nature of verbal art. But at the beginning of the 19th century. there was a literary split between the classics and the romantics, who led the new poetics; after romanticism came naturalism; then at the end of the century symbolism, futurism, etc. The rapid change of literary schools, especially noticeable at the present time, which is revolutionary in all areas of human culture, proves the illusory nature of the desire to find a universal normative poetics. Any literary norm put forward by one movement is usually met with negation in the opposite literary school. Despite the fact that each literary school usually claims that its aesthetic principles are universally binding, with the decline of the school’s literary influence, its principles also fall, being replaced by new ones in the new movement that replaces the old one. It is impossible now to build any kind of normative poetics that claims to be stable, since the crisis of art, expressed in the rapid change of literary movements and their changeability, has not yet passed.
Here we will not set ourselves normative tasks, being content with an objective description and interpretation of literary material, i.e. Let us confine ourselves to questions of general poetics.
In choosing material we will turn mainly to literature of the 19th century. as the closest to us. We will, if possible, avoid turning to literary material before the 17th century, because it was from the 17th century. in Europe, the history of new literature begins, the continuous transmission of literary tradition from generation to generation begins, and only a few works created earlier have an impact on the work of later eras, and even these works (such as ancient literature, the literature of eastern peoples) are so are modified, refracted through the conventional interpretation of modern times, which makes it difficult to talk about their direct and holistic impact on the literary tradition.
– teach children to feel the text subtly. All of us, reading the text, understand, feel it, and we want to pass this on to our students.
Our task is to develop the skills to interpret a literary work and construct a speech utterance in written and oral form, to deepen the understanding of literary criticism as a science. In addition, we teach children to read thoughtfully, promote the formation of artistic taste, identify reading preferences, and expand their cultural horizons.
The French philosopher C. Montesquieu succinctly formulated one of the laws of writing: “You should never exhaust a subject to the point that there is nothing left for the reader. The point is not to make him read, but to make him think."
Deep immersion into a literary text, identifying it hidden meanings It is hardly possible without knowledge of the basic laws of the art of words, without mastery of basic terms and concepts.
ChapterI. A work of art as an aesthetic object.
Through literature we understand the world. There are various forms of understanding the world: conceptual-logical (science), religious, philosophical, sensory-figurative (art). Including the art of words. Fiction is also a kind of ethical program that reflects the author's and value guidelines. It is impossible to fully understand a work of art without mastering the language of verbal art, without comprehending internal organization work without realizing its artistic integrity. And the main condition for understanding a work is the presence of a kind of dialogue between the reader and the author. The reader's talent is to be able to analyze and interpret without violating the will of the author.
ChapterII. Poetics as one of the oldest disciplines of literary criticism.
To be able to analyze and interpret - this is what the science of fiction - literary criticism - serves.
Poetics is the science of the system of means of expression in literary works, of the relationship between text elements that form the overall aesthetic impression of the work.
Historical, particular and general poetics are distinguished.
For historical poetics, the main concept is genre (for example, the poetics of a ballad).
Private poetics systematizes the elements of a work of art: verbal structure (vocabulary, syntax, stylistics, etc.), sound structure (sound writing, rhythm, etc.), figurative structure (image of a person, time, space, etc.). Poetics helps to understand the different aspects of a work of art, the semantic signals on which the literary text is built.
ChapterIII. The nature of art as the initial category of poetics.
Speaking about poetics, one cannot ignore such an aspect as creative inspiration, which is still a mystery. S. Yesenin noted: “I am God’s pipe.” Even for the authors themselves, the turn in the work was unexpected (: “My Tatyana got married”).
ChapterIV. Question about the purpose of art
Any work of art reflects three main aspects of creativity: aesthetic, cognitive and worldview. But in any case, genuine works of art help the reader experience an encounter with something great, come into contact with highest values. Isn't this one of the main goals of art?
What is the structural organization literary text?
ChapterV. Structural organization of literary text. Form and content of a work of art.
A literary work is a kind of sign system in which various elements of the artistic whole are distinguished: plot and composition, literary portrait hero and landscape, detail and detail, artistic speech.
For research figurative system of a literary text, they turn to the following level of observation: stylistic figures and tropes, images (hero, nature, time, etc.), a complete text, a set of texts.
If we talk about themes and plot, we can recall the following elements of a literary text: plot, keyword, “eternal” topics. When analyzing a poem, the line, strophic unity, and the whole text are taken into account.
It is customary to distinguish three main aspects of a work: the world of a work of art, associated with the subject-visual principle. (plot, character and forms of his behavior, image of the author, portrait, thing, landscape, time, space, etc.), artistic speech (features of language, style) and composition. The formal elements of a literary text include style, genre, composition, and rhythm. The content ones include theme, plot, conflict, character, idea, problem. The plot has a content-formal character. And a work is holistic when there is harmony between form and content.
ChapterVI. Hermeneutics. Interpretation of a work of art.
Hermeneutics is the science of understanding and interpreting the meaning of a text. (Hermes, deity ancient greek mythology, enters the world of life and the other world, is a mediator, serves as a commentator, conveys the will of the immortals). What does it mean to understand a text? Should I interpret it correctly? There is a lot of controversy about this. Hermeneutics teaches us to consider a work from two sides: from the point of view of the author’s intention and from the position of the reader who perceives the work. The reader’s comprehension of the text occurs at two levels: intuitive comprehension and analytical work, i.e. interpretation.
But one thing is important: one must not go beyond the boundaries of the author’s will and cultural traditions. The “essence” of creation cannot be distorted.
We can talk about the author as a writer, a real person with his own unique biography. And we can talk about the author as an artistic embodiment captured in the work, about his author's position and the means of its expression. The author determines the tone of the work (heroic, tragic, ironic, etc.). It is important to understand the author's position. Sometimes the author speaks directly about this, sometimes (in dramatic works) this is more difficult to do. The author's voice in a work is that unique voice that cannot be attributed to either the characters or the fictional narrator.
ChapterVIII. The plot of a work of art.
The plot is one of the most important means of embodying content, a generalization of the writer's thoughts. In other words, the plot is the most important component of the form of a work in its correspondence with the content. The functions of the plot include identifying the character of the hero, “consolidating” the events depicted, and recreating life’s contradictions.
There are two types of action. External action involves a change in the fate of the heroes.
Internal action is the dynamics of the life of the heroes’ souls. Of course, any plot is a fusion of these two types. Close to the concept of “plot” is the concept of “plot” (the events that formed the basis of the work in chronological order). There are chronicle and concentric stories.
Chronicle plot (“B” happened after “A”).
Concentric plot (“B” occurred as a result of “A”).
The plot of a work, in addition to the author's intention, can incorporate other sources (biblical texts, myths, traditions, legends). The author can rework plots from the works of world classics in his own way, and can use historical facts.
ChapterIX. Composition of a work of art.
The composition holds together the elements of form and subordinates them to the idea. The science of literature distinguishes three main levels artistic form: speech structure of the work (rhythm, themes, features of syntax, means of expression); subject representation (characters, event, portrait, landscape, interior) and composition. The terms structure and architectonics can be used as synonyms. When constructing a work, the artist can turn to various compositional techniques: framing the narrative, breaking chronology, introducing the text lyrical digressions etc. The following types of compositions are distinguished:
the first type is the proportionality of all parts (antiquity, classicism).
The second type is alternation structural elements(“Oblomov” Goncharov)
The third type is liberation from definite plan in construction (Pushkin “Eugene Onegin”) - free composition. Sometimes the originality of the composition is determined with the help of an exact metaphor (“Oblomov” - ring-shaped, “Eugene Onegin” - mirrored, “After the Ball” - framed).
Section X. The role and place of conflict in the poetics of the work.
As a rule, a work contains a set of conflicts. Conflict drives the development of action. Grouping is possible taking into account the themes of the work. There are moral, philosophical, social, ideological, socio-political, family and other conflicts. There is no strict classification of conflicts.
There are local conflicts (closed within the work, where they are exhausted (“ Poor Lisa Karamzin), unsolvable – stable (“Fathers and Sons” by Turgenev). The conflict is connected with the pathos of the work: tragic conflict, comic, heroic, etc.
You can consider the conflict in the work from a historical perspective (antiquity - man and fate, the Middle Ages - the divine and the devil in the human soul, etc.).
ChapterXI. Artistic image.
Science has not developed an unambiguous interpretation of this concept.
But everyone agrees on one thing: an image is any phenomenon creatively recreated in a work. It is also difficult to systematize artistic images, but they can be grouped according to a number of characteristics. Let's say a system of characters: individual images (Natasha Rostova), characteristic (Dikoy), typical (Evgeny Bazarov).
Images that go beyond one work:
1. Image-motive (repetition in different works- image of a blizzard)
2. Image-topos (for a given nation, culture-image of a road)
3. Image - archetype - (Don Juan, Hamlet)
ChapterXII. The image of a person and aspects of its analysis.
The concept of “Literary hero” has a number of synonyms: character – hero – character, lyrical hero.
A work can include not only individual heroes, but also collective, massive (army).
Not every hero has character. Through the character of the hero, the author's moral and aesthetic concept of human existence is given. Turning to a generalized image, we talk about a type, a typical hero.
There are one-dimensional characters (simplified).
Multifaceted (complex).
Static (stable) – dynamic (developing). Aspects of the hero's characteristics:
the meaning of the name or lack thereof.
The place of the hero in the system of images.
Similar heroes are introduced.
Heroes by contrast
ChapterXIII. Landscape and its functions in the work.
Landscape is one of the content and compositional components of a work of art. It is a certain means of realizing the author's intention.
Functions of landscape: recreating the background, expressing the author’s position, author's attitude in the hero, showing the character of the hero, his inner essence. Sometimes the landscape forms a philosophical context (thinking about the mysteries of existence, etc.)
ChapterXIV. The function of a portrait in a work of art.
Portrait is one of the most frequently used elements of literary text. The writer tries to make his hero “visible” and memorable. But the portrait the most important means to characterize the characters, a way to establish a connection between appearance and its internal content, psychological state and assessment of the author.
A hallmark of different writing styles is its detailing.
ChapterXV. Artistic detail. Symbol. Text detail.
It is no exaggeration to say that art speaks in the language of detail. The detail attracts attention, is a way of penetrating into the interstitial space, and becomes a key symbol that helps to understand the innermost thoughts of the author. The selection of details allows the artist to turn the object to the reader in the desired direction. One of the existing classifications of artistic details takes into account these functions, highlighting everyday details, interior details, landscape details, portraits, and psychological details. Literary critic Esin suggested dividing artistic details into three groups: plot, descriptive, psychological.
A detail is a way of constructing a symbolic generalization. It develops into a symbol when it retains its meaning and gives rise to a number of associations (“Station Agent”).
Details can complement each other, contrast, and occupy a unique place in the work.
ChapterXVI. Means of expression. Stylistic figures and tropes.
Municipal educational institution "BISHKIL SECONDARY SCHOOL"
DISTRICT SEMINAR
"STUDY
LITERARY TEXT"
PREPARED BY: teacher of Russian language and literature
KROMSKAYA FANUZA MAGAFUROVNA
2012 – 2013 academic year.
