By the end of the 18th century cultural development In Western European countries, classicism became the dominant artistic movement. refers to heritage ancient times, taking it as an ideal model and norm. Classicism in literature is inextricably linked with the activities of Francois Malherbe. He initiated the reform of verse and language, thanks to him certain poetic canons were established in literature.
Classicism is a style that dominated the art of the 10th-19th centuries. This direction, based on the ideas of rationalism, sought to elevate moral and heroic ideals.
Classicism in literature divides the main genres into two types: high and low. The first include works telling about outstanding people and events. These genres include ode, tragedy and heroic song. The main characters here are politicians, famous artists, and monarchs - those people about whom it is customary to speak in majestic, solemn language. Low genres describe the life of the private bourgeoisie, the so-called third estate. These include comedy, fable, satire and other works written in
Classicism in literature puts the tragedy genre in first place. It is he who is able to expose the most important moral problems. Social conflicts are reflected in the souls of the main characters, who are faced with a choice between personal interests, passions and moral duty. Reason is opposed to feelings.
During the period of classicism in the works of J. Lafontaine, N. Boileau and J.-B. Moliere's fable, satire and comedy reach a high level of development. These works address important philosophical and moral issues modern society, cease to be a “low” genre and acquire a certain dramatic significance.
In the era of classicism it is created huge amount prose works. The works of B. Pascal, M. Lafayette, J. La Bruyère and other writers of this period are distinguished by their typification of passions, analytical worldview, clarity and precision of style.
Classicism in literature reflects the main trends of urban poetry. In their works, writers sought to convey to the reader the importance of people fulfilling their responsibilities to society, the need to educate a citizen.
We can list the main features of classicism:
- images and forms of works are taken from ancient art;
- dividing heroes into positive and negative;
- the plot of the classic work is based on a love triangle;
- in the finale, good triumphs, and evil remains punished;
- adherence to the principle of three unities: place, action and time.
Traditionally, the authors took a certain plot as the basis for the plot of a classical work. historical event. Main character works - a virtuous person who is alien to any vices. Classical works were imbued with the ideas of rationalism and service to the state.
In Russia, this trend was first reflected in the works of M. Lomonosov, and then developed in the works of V. Trediakovsky and other educators. The theme of the tragedies is based on national historical events (A. Sumarokov, N. Nikolaev, Y. Knyazhnin), and their style contains lyricism and “mouthpiece” of the main characters. Basic characters express the author's ideas directly and boldly. We can say that it has become a means of satirically exposing the pathos of citizenship.
After the publication of V. Belinsky’s articles, a negative attitude towards this direction was established in academic science and criticism. Only in Soviet period managed to return this style to its former significance and importance.
Classicism — artistic style and aesthetic direction in European art XVII-XIX centuries
Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism, which were formed simultaneously with the same ideas in the philosophy of Descartes. artwork, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. Of interest to classicism is only the eternal, the unchangeable - in each phenomenon it strives to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual characteristics. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art (Aristotle, Horace).
Classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high (ode, tragedy, epic) and low (comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strictly defined characteristics, the mixing of which is not allowed.
How a certain direction was formed in France, in the 17th century. French classicism asserted a person's identity as highest value existence, freeing it from religious and church influence. Russian classicism not only adopted Western European theory, but also enriched it with national characteristics.
The founder of the poetics of classicism is the Frenchman Francois Malherbe (1555-1628), who carried out the reform French and verse and developed poetic canons. The leading representatives of classicism in drama were the tragedians Corneille and Racine (1639-1699), whose main subject of creativity was the conflict between public duty and personal passions. High development“low” genres also reached: fable (J. Lafontaine), satire (Boileau), comedy (Molière 1622-1673).
Boileau became famous throughout Europe as the “legislator of Parnassus”, the largest theorist of classicism, who expressed his views in the poetic treatise “Poetic Art”. Under his influence in Great Britain were the poets John Dryden and Alexander Pope, who made alexandrines the main form of English poetry. English prose of the classical era (Addison, Swift) is also characterized by a Latinized syntax.
Classicism of the 18th century developed under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment. The work of Voltaire (1694-1778) is directed against religious fanaticism, absolutist oppression, and is filled with the pathos of freedom. The goal of creativity is to change the world in better side, construction in accordance with the laws of classicism of society itself. From the standpoint of classicism, the Englishman Samuel Johnson reviewed contemporary literature, around whom a brilliant circle of like-minded people formed, including the essayist Boswell, the historian Gibbon and the actor Garrick.
In Russia, classicism originated in the 18th century, after the reforms of Peter I. Lomonosov carried out a reform of Russian verse and developed the theory of “three calms,” which was essentially an adaptation of French classical rules to the Russian language. Images in classicism are deprived individual traits, since they are intended primarily to capture stable generic characteristics that do not pass over time, acting as the embodiment of any social or spiritual forces.
Classicism in Russia developed under the great influence of the Enlightenment - the ideas of equality and justice have always been the focus of attention of Russian classic writers. Therefore, in Russian classicism, genres that require the author’s obligatory assessment of historical reality have received great development: comedy (D. I. Fonvizin), satire (A. D. Kantemir), fable (A. P. Sumarokov, I. I. Khemnitser), ode (Lomonosov, G. R. Derzhavin).
In connection with Rousseau’s proclaimed call for closeness to nature and naturalness, crisis phenomena were growing in classicism at the end of the 18th century; The absolutization of reason is replaced by the cult of tender feelings - sentimentalism. The transition from classicism to pre-romanticism was most clearly reflected in German literature the era of “Storm and Drang”, represented by the names of I. V. Goethe (1749-1832) and F. Schiller (1759-1805), who, following Rousseau, saw art main force human upbringing.
The main features of Russian classicism:
1. Appeal to the images and forms of ancient art.
2. Heroes are clearly divided into positive and negative.
3. The plot is usually based on love triangle: the heroine is the hero-lover, the second lover.
4. At the end classic comedy Vice is always punished, and goodness triumphs.
5. The principle of three unities: time (the action lasts no more than a day), place, action.
Romanticism as a literary movement.
Romanticism (French romantisme) is a phenomenon European culture V XVIII-XIX centuries, which is a reaction to the Enlightenment and the scientific and technological progress stimulated by it; ideological and artistic direction in European and American culture late 18th century - first half of the 19th century century. It is characterized by an affirmation of the intrinsic value of the spiritual and creative life of the individual, the depiction of strong (often rebellious) passions and characters, spiritualized and healing nature.
Romanticism first arose in Germany, among writers and philosophers of the Jena school (W. G. Wackenroder, Ludwig Tieck, Novalis, brothers F. and A. Schlegel). The philosophy of romanticism was systematized in the works of F. Schlegel and F. Schelling. In its further development, German romanticism was distinguished by an interest in fairy-tale and mythological motifs, which was especially clearly expressed in the works of the brothers Wilhelm and Jacob Grimm, and Hoffmann. Heine, starting his work within the framework of romanticism, later subjected it to critical revision.
In England it is largely due to German influence. In England, its first representatives are the poets of the “Lake School”, Wordsworth and Coleridge. They established the theoretical foundations of their direction, becoming familiar with the philosophy of Schelling and the views of the first German romantics during a trip to Germany. English romanticism is characterized by an interest in social problems: they contrast modern bourgeois society with old, pre-bourgeois relationships, glorification of nature, simple, natural feelings.
A prominent representative of English romanticism is Byron, who, according to Pushkin, “clothed himself in dull romanticism and hopeless egoism.” His work is imbued with the pathos of struggle and protest against modern world, praising freedom and individualism.
Romanticism became widespread in other European countries, for example, in France (Chateaubriand, J.Stal, Lamartine, Victor Hugo, Alfred de Vigny, Prosper Merimee, George Sand), Italy (N. U. Foscolo, A. Manzoni, Leopardi), Poland (Adam Mickiewicz, Juliusz Słowacki , Zygmunt Krasiński, Cyprian Norwid) and in the USA (Washington Irving, Fenimore Cooper, W. C. Bryant, Edgar Allan Poe, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Henry Longfellow, Herman Melville).
It is usually believed that in Russia romanticism appears in the poetry of V. A. Zhukovsky (although some Russians often refer to the pre-romantic movement that developed from sentimentalism poetic works 1790-1800s). In Russian romanticism, freedom from classical conventions appears, a ballad is created, romantic drama. A new idea is being established about the essence and meaning of poetry, which is recognized as an independent sphere of life, an expression of the highest, ideal aspirations of man; the old view, according to which poetry seemed to be empty fun, something completely serviceable, turns out to be no longer possible.
The early poetry of A. S. Pushkin also developed within the framework of romanticism. The poetry of M. Yu. Lermontov, the “Russian Byron,” can be considered the pinnacle of Russian romanticism. Philosophical lyrics F.I. Tyutchev is both the completion and overcoming of romanticism in Russia.
Heroes are bright, exceptional individuals in unusual circumstances. Romanticism is characterized by impulse, extraordinary complexity, and the inner depth of human individuality. Denial of artistic authorities. There are no genre barriers or stylistic distinctions. Only the desire for complete freedom creative imagination. For example, we can cite the greatest French poet and writer Victor Hugo and his worldwide famous novel"Notre Dame Cathedral"
Classicism (from Latin classicus - exemplary) is the artistic style of European art of the 17th–19th centuries, one of the most important features of which was the appeal to ancient art as the highest example and reliance on traditions high Renaissance. The art of classicism reflected the ideas of the harmonious structure of society, but in many ways lost them in comparison with the culture of the Renaissance. Conflicts between personality and society, ideal and reality, feelings and reason testify to the complexity of the art of classicism. The artistic forms of classicism are characterized by strict organization, balance, clarity and harmony of images.
Classicism is associated with the Enlightenment and was based on the ideas of philosophical rationalism, on ideas about the rational laws of the world. According to lofty ethical ideas, educational program In art, the aesthetics of classicism established a hierarchy of genres - “high” (tragedy, epic, ode, history, mythology, religious painting, etc.) and “low” (comedy, satire, fable, genre painting, etc.). In literature (tragedies by P. Corneille, J. Racine, Voltaire, comedies by Molière, the poem “The Art of Poetry” and satires by N. Boileau, fables by J. Lafontaine, prose by F. La Rochefoucauld, J. Labruyère in France, works of the Weimar period by I.V. . Goethe and F. Schiller in Germany, odes of M.V. Lomonosov and G.R. Derzhavin, tragedies of A.P. Sumarokov and Ya.B. Knyazhnin in Russia) significant ethical conflicts and normative typified images play a leading role. For theatrical arts(Mondori, Duparc, M. Chanmele, A.L. Lequen, F.J. Talma, Rachel in France, F.C. Neuber in Germany, F.G. Volkov, I.A. Dmitrevsky in Russia) are characteristically solemn, static structure of performances, measured reading of poetry.
The main features of Russian classicism: appeal to the images and forms of ancient art; heroes are clearly divided into positive and negative; the plot is based, as a rule, on a love triangle: the heroine is the hero-lover, the second lover; at the end of the classical comedy, vice is always punished, and good triumphs; the principle of three unities: time (the action lasts no more than a day), place, action. For example, we can cite Fonvizin’s comedy “The Minor.” In this comedy, Fonvizin tries to implement main idea classicism - to re-educate the world with rational words. Positive heroes They talk a lot about morality, life at court, and the duty of a nobleman. Negative characters become an illustration of inappropriate behavior. Behind the clash of personal interests, the social positions of the heroes are visible.
Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism coming from the philosophy of Descartes. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. Of interest to classicism is only the eternal, the unchangeable - in each phenomenon it strives to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual characteristics. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art (Aristotle, Horace).
In literature, classicism originated and spread in France in the 17th century. Nicolas Boileau is considered a theorist of classicism, who formed the basic principles of the style in the article “Poetic Art.” The name comes from the Latin “classicus” - exemplary, which emphasizes the artistic basis of the style - the images and forms of antiquity, to which they began to have a special interest at the end of the Renaissance. The emergence of classicism is associated with the formation of the principles of a centralized state and the ideas of “enlightened” absolutism in it.
Classicism glorifies the concept of reason, believing that only with the help of the mind can one obtain and organize a picture of the world. Therefore, the main thing in a work becomes its idea (that is, main idea and the form of the work must be in harmony), and the main thing in the conflict of reason and feelings is reason and duty.
The basic principles of classicism, characteristic of both foreign and domestic literature:
- Forms and images from ancient (ancient Greek and Roman) literature: tragedy, ode, comedy, epic, poetic odic and satirical forms.
- A clear division of genres into “high” and “low”. The “high” ones include ode, tragedy and epic, the “low” ones, as a rule, are funny - comedy, satire, fable.
- A distinctive division of heroes into good and bad.
- Compliance with the principle of the trinity of time, place, action.
Classicism in Russian literature
XVIII century
In Russia, classicism appeared much later than in European countries, since it was “imported” along with European works and enlightenment. The existence of style on Russian soil is usually placed within the following framework:
1. The end of the 1720s, literature of Peter’s time, secular literature, different from the church literature that previously dominated in Russia.
The style began to develop first in translated works, then in original works. With the development of Russian classical tradition the names of A. D. Kantemir, A. P. Sumarokov and V. K. Trediakovsky (reformers and developers) are associated literary language, they worked on poetic forms - on odes and satires).
- 1730-1770 - the heyday of the style and its evolution. Associated with the name of M.V. Lomonosov, who wrote tragedies, odes, and poems.
- The last quarter of the 18th century saw the emergence of sentimentalism and the beginning of the crisis of classicism. The time of late classicism is associated with the name of D. I. Fonvizin, the author of tragedies, dramas and comedies; G. R. Derzhavin ( poetic forms), A. N. Radishchev (prose and poetic works).
(A. N. Radishchev, D. I. Fonvizin, P. Ya. Chaadaev)
D. I. Fonvizin and A. N. Radishchev became not only developers, but also destroyers of the stylistic unity of classicism: Fonvizin in comedies violates the principle of the trinity, introducing ambiguity in the assessment of heroes. Radishchev becomes the harbinger and developer of sentimentalism, providing psychologism to the narrative, rejecting its conventions.
(Representatives of classicism)
19th century
It is believed that classicism existed by inertia until the 1820s, but during late classicism the works created within its framework were classical only formally, or its principles were used deliberately to create a comic effect.
Russian classicism of the early 19th century is moving away from its breakthrough features: affirmation of the primacy of reason, civic pathos, opposition to the arbitrariness of religion, against its oppression over reason, criticism of the monarchy.
Classicism in foreign literature
Initial classicism was based on the theoretical developments of ancient authors - Aristotle and Horace (“Poetics” and “Epistle to the Piso”).
IN European literature with identical principles, the style ends its existence in the 1720s. Representatives of classicism in France: Francois Malherbe (poetic works, reformation of poetic language), J. Lafontaine ( satirical works, fable), J.-B. Moliere (comedy), Voltaire (drama), J.-J. Rousseau (late classicist prose writer, harbinger of sentimentalism).
There are two stages in the development of European classicism:
- The development and flourishing of the monarchy, contributing to the positive development of the economy, science and culture. At this stage, representatives of classicism see their task as glorifying the monarch, establishing her inviolability (Francois Malherbe, Pierre Corneille, leading genres - ode, poem, epic).
- The crisis of the monarchy, the discovery of shortcomings in the political system. Writers do not glorify, but rather criticize the monarchy. (J. Lafontaine, J.-B. Moliere, Voltaire, leading genres - comedy, satire, epigram).
In music, like in no other art form, the concept of “classic” has an ambiguous content. Everything is relative, and any yesterday’s hits that have stood the test of time - be it the masterpieces of Bach, Mozart, Chopin, Prokofiev or, say, The Beatles- can be attributed to classical works.
May lovers forgive me early music for the frivolous word “hit,” but great composers once wrote popular music for their contemporaries, without aiming at eternity.
What is all this for? To the point that it is important to share the broad concept classical music and classicism as a direction in musical art.
The era of classicism
Classicism, which replaced the Renaissance through several stages, took shape in France at the end of the 17th century, reflecting in its art partly the serious rise of the absolute monarchy, partly the change in worldview from religious to secular.
In the 18th century, a new round of development began public consciousness- The Age of Enlightenment has arrived. The pomp and pomp of Baroque, the immediate predecessor of classicism, was replaced by a style based on simplicity and naturalness.
Aesthetic principles of classicism
The art of classicism is based on cult of reason – rationalism, harmony and logic . The name "classicism" in origin is associated with the word from Latin language– classicus, which means “exemplary”. The ideal model for artists of this trend was ancient aesthetics with its harmonious logic and harmony. In classicism, reason prevails over feelings, individualism is not welcomed, and in any phenomenon general, typological features acquire paramount importance. Each work of art must be built according to strict canons. The requirement of the era of classicism is the balance of proportions, excluding everything superfluous and secondary.
Classicism is characterized by a strict division into "high" and "low" genres . “High” works are works that refer to ancient and religious subjects, written in solemn language (tragedy, hymn, ode). And “low” genres are those works that are presented in vernacular language and reflect folk life(fable, comedy). Mixing genres was unacceptable.
Classicism in music - Viennese classics
The development of a new musical culture in the middle of the 18th century gave rise to the emergence of many private salons, musical societies and orchestras, open concerts and opera performances.
Capital musical world in those days there was Vienna. Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Ludwig van Beethoven are three great names who went down in history as.
The composers of the Viennese school were masters of the most different genres music - from everyday songs to symphonies. A high style of music in which rich figurative content is embodied in a simple but perfect artistic form, - Here main feature creativity Viennese classics.
Musical culture classicism, like literature, as well as fine arts, glorifies the actions of a person, his emotions and feelings, over which reason reigns. Creative artists in their works are characterized by logical thinking, harmony and clarity. The simplicity and ease of the statements of classical composers might seem banal to the modern ear (in some cases, of course), if their music were not so brilliant.
Each of the Viennese classics had a bright, unique personality. Haydn and Beethoven gravitated more towards instrumental music - sonatas, concertos and symphonies. Mozart was universal in everything - he created everything with ease. He had a huge influence on the development of opera, creating and improving its various types - from opera buffa to musical drama.
In terms of composers’ preferences for certain figurative spheres, Haydn is more typical of objective folk-genre sketches, pastoralism, gallantry; Beethoven is close to heroism and drama, as well as philosophy, and, of course, nature, and to a small extent, refined lyricism. Mozart covered, perhaps, all existing figurative spheres.
Genres of musical classicism
The musical culture of classicism is associated with the creation of many genres instrumental music- such as a sonata, symphony, concerto. A multi-part sonata-symphonic form (a 4-part cycle) was formed, which is still the basis of many instrumental works.
In the era of classicism, the main types of chamber ensembles emerged - trios and string quartets. System developed Viennese school forms is still relevant today - modern “bells and whistles” are layered on it as a basis.
Let us briefly dwell on the innovations characteristic of classicism.
Sonata form
The sonata genre existed back in early XVII century, but the sonata form was finally formed in the works of Haydn and Mozart, and Beethoven brought it to perfection and even began to break the strict canons of the genre.
The classical sonata form is based on the opposition of two themes (often contrasting, sometimes conflicting) - the main and secondary - and their development.
The sonata form includes 3 main sections:
- first section – exposition(carrying out the main topics),
- second - development(development and comparison of topics)
- and the third - reprise(a modified repetition of an exposition, in which there is usually a tonal convergence of previously opposed themes).
As a rule, the first, fast parts of a sonata or symphonic cycle were written in sonata form, which is why the name sonata allegro was assigned to them.
Sonata-symphonic cycle
In terms of structure and the logic of the sequence of parts, symphonies and sonatas are very similar, hence the common name for their integral musical form– sonata-symphonic cycle.
Classical symphony almost always consists of 4 parts:
- I – fast active part in its traditional sonata allegro form;
- II – slow movement (its form, as a rule, is not strictly regulated - variations are possible here, and three-part complex or simple forms, and rondo sonatas, and slow sonata form);
- III - minuet (sometimes scherzo), the so-called genre movement - almost always complex three-part in form;
- IV is the final and final fast movement, for which the sonata form was also often chosen, sometimes the rondo or rondo sonata form.
Concert
The name of the concert as a genre comes from Latin word concertare – “competition”. This is a piece for orchestra and solo instrument. Instrumental concert, created during the Renaissance and which received a simply grandiose development in the work of the Viennese classics, acquired a sonata-symphonic form.
String Quartet
Compound string quartet usually includes two violins, viola and cello. The form of the quartet, similar to the sonata-symphonic cycle, was already determined by Haydn. Mozart and Beethoven also made great contributions and paved the way for the further development of this genre.
The musical culture of classicism became a kind of “cradle” for the string quartet; in subsequent times and to this day, composers do not stop writing more and more new works in the concert genre - this type of work turned out to be so in demand.
The music of classicism amazingly combines external simplicity and clarity with deep internal content, which is not alien to strong feelings and drama. Classicism, moreover, is a style of a certain historical era, and this style is not forgotten, but has serious connections with the music of our time (neoclassicism, polystylistics).
