Sumerian ornaments. Sumerian culture. The oldest art in history of Sumer and Akkad

At the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. the growth of class contradictions led to the formation of the first small slave states in Mesopotamia, in which the vestiges of the primitive communal system were still very strong. Initially, individual cities (with adjacent rural settlements), usually located at the sites of ancient temple centers. There were continuous wars between them for the possession of the main irrigation canals, for the seizure of the best lands, slaves and livestock.

Earlier than others, the Sumerian city-states of Ur, Uruk, Lagash and others arose in the south of Mesopotamia. Subsequently, economic reasons caused a tendency to unite into larger ones state entities which was usually carried out using military force. In the second half of the 3rd millennium, Akkad rose in the north, whose ruler, Sargon I, united under his rule most of Mesopotamia, creating a single and powerful Sumerian-Akkadian kingdom. The royal government, which represented the interests of the slave-owning elite, especially since the time of Akkad, became despotic. The priesthood, which was one of the pillars of ancient Eastern despotism, developed a complex cult of the gods and deified the power of the king. A major role in the religion of the peoples of Mesopotamia was played by the worship of the forces of nature and remnants of the cult of animals. The gods were depicted as people, animals and fantastic creatures of supernatural power: winged lions, bulls, etc.

During this period, the main features characteristic of the art of Mesopotamia of the early slaveholding era were consolidated. The leading role was played by the architecture of palace buildings and temples, decorated with works of sculpture and painting. Due to the military nature of the Sumerian states, the architecture was of a fortress nature, as evidenced by the remains of numerous city buildings and defensive walls equipped with towers and well-fortified gates.

Main building material The buildings of Mesopotamia were made of raw brick, much less often burnt brick. The design feature of monumental architecture was going back to the 4th millennium BC. the use of artificially erected platforms, which is explained, perhaps, by the need to isolate the building from the dampness of the soil, moistened by spills, and at the same time, probably, by the desire to make the building visible from all sides. Another characteristic feature, based on the same ancient tradition, there was a broken line of the wall formed by protrusions. Windows, when they were made, were placed at the top of the wall and looked like narrow cracks. The buildings were also illuminated through a doorway and a hole in the roof. The roofs were mostly flat, but there was also a vault. Residential buildings discovered by excavations in the south of Sumer had an internal open courtyard around which covered rooms were grouped. This layout, which corresponded to the climatic conditions of the country, formed the basis for the palace buildings of the southern Mesopotamia. In the northern part of Sumer, houses were discovered that, instead of an open courtyard, had a central room with a ceiling. Residential buildings sometimes they were two-story, with blank walls facing the street, as is often the case to this day in eastern cities.

About the ancient temple architecture of Sumerian cities of the 3rd millennium BC. give an idea of the ruins of the temple at El Obeid (2600 BC); dedicated to the goddess of fertility Nin-Khursag. According to the reconstruction (however, not indisputable), the temple stood on a high platform (area 32x25 m), made of tightly compacted clay. The walls of the platform and sanctuary, in accordance with the ancient Sumerian tradition, were dissected by vertical projections, but, in addition, the retaining walls of the platform were coated in the lower part with black bitumen, and whitewashed at the top and thus were also divided horizontally. A rhythm of vertical and horizontal sections was created, which was repeated on the walls of the sanctuary, but in a slightly different interpretation. Here the vertical division of the wall was cut horizontally by ribbons of friezes.

For the first time, round sculpture and relief were used to decorate the building. The lion statues on the sides of the entrance (the oldest gate sculpture) were made, like all other sculptural decorations of El Obeid, from wood covered with a layer of bitumen with hammered copper sheets. Inlaid eyes and protruding tongues made of colored stones gave these sculptures a bright, colorful appearance.

Along the wall, in the niches between the ledges, there were very expressive copper figurines of walking bulls (ill. 16 a). Higher up, the surface of the wall was decorated with three friezes, located at some distance from one another: a high relief with images of lying bulls made of copper and two with a flat mosaic relief laid out of white mother-of-pearl on black slate plates. In this way, a color scheme was created that echoed the colors of the platforms. One of the friezes depicted scenes quite clearly economic life, possibly having cult significance (ill. 16 b), on the other there are sacred birds and animals walking in a line.

The inlay technique was also used when making columns on the facade. Some of them were decorated with colored stones, mother-of-pearl and shells, others with metal plates attached to a wooden base with nails with colored heads.

The copper high relief placed above the entrance to the sanctuary, turning in places into a round sculpture, was executed with undoubted skill; it depicts a lion-headed eagle clawing deer (ill. 17 6). This composition, repeated with minor variations on a number of monuments of the mid-3rd millennium BC. (on a silver vase of the ruler Entemena, votive plates made of stone and bitumen, etc.), was apparently the emblem of the god Nin-Girsu. A feature of the relief is a very clear, symmetrical heraldic composition, which later became one of the characteristic features of the Western Asian relief.

The Sumerians created the ziggurat - a unique type of religious building, which for thousands of years occupied a prominent place in the architecture of the cities of Western Asia. The ziggurat was erected at the temple of the main local deity and was a high stepped tower made of raw brick; at the top of the ziggurat there was a small structure that crowned the building - the so-called “home of god.”

The ziggurat in Uret, erected in the 22nd - 21st centuries BC, has been preserved better than others, rebuilt many times. (reconstruction). It consisted of three massive towers, built one above the other and forming wide, possibly landscaped terraces, connected by stairs. The lower part had a rectangular base 65x43 m, the walls reached 13 m in height. The total height of the building at one time reached 21 m (which is equal to a five-story building today). Interior space in the ziggurat there was usually no or it was reduced to a minimum, to one small room. The towers of the ziggurat of Ur were different colors: bottom - black, coated with bitumen, middle - red (the natural color of baked brick), top - white. On the upper terrace, where the “home of God” was located, religious mysteries took place; it may also have served as an observatory for the stargazer priests. Monumentality, which was achieved by massiveness, simplicity of shapes and volumes, as well as clarity of proportions, created the impression of grandeur and power and was distinctive feature ziggurat architecture. With its monumentality, the ziggurat is reminiscent of the pyramids of Egypt.

Plastic art of the mid-3rd millennium BC. characterized by the predominance of small sculpture, mainly for religious purposes; its execution is still quite primitive.

Despite the rather significant diversity represented by the sculpture monuments of various local centers of Ancient Sumer, two main groups can be distinguished - one associated with the south, the other with the north of the country.

The extreme south of Mesopotamia (the cities of Ur, Lagash, etc.) is characterized by almost complete indivisibility of the stone block and a very summary interpretation of the details. Squat figures with almost no neck, beak-shaped nose and big eyes. The proportions of the body are not observed (ill. 18). Sculptural monuments the northern part of the southern Mesopotamia (the cities of Ashnunak, Khafaj, etc.) are distinguished by more elongated proportions, greater elaboration of details, and a desire for naturalistic accurate rendering external features models, albeit with greatly exaggerated eye sockets and oversized noses.

Sumerian sculpture is expressive in its own way. Especially clearly it conveys the humiliated servility or tender piety, so characteristic mainly of the statues of praying people, which noble Sumerians dedicated to their gods. There were certain poses and gestures that had been established since ancient times, which can always be seen in reliefs and in round sculpture.

Greater perfection in Ancient Sumer metal-plastic was different, I had other types artistic craft. This is evidenced by the well-preserved burial goods of the so-called “royal tombs” of the 27th - 26th centuries. BC, discovered in Ur. Finds in the tombs speak of class differentiation in Ur of this time and of a developed cult of the dead, associated with the custom of human sacrifices, which were widespread here. The luxurious utensils of the tombs are skillfully made from precious metals(gold and silver) and various stones (alabaster, lapis lazuli, obsidian, etc.). Among the finds from the “royal tombs”, a golden helmet of the finest work from the tomb of the ruler Meskalamdug, reproducing a wig with the smallest details of an intricate hairstyle, stands out. Very good is a golden dagger with a scabbard of fine filigree work from the same tomb and other objects that amaze with the variety of shapes and elegance of decoration. The art of goldsmiths in depicting animals reaches particular heights, as can be judged by the beautifully executed bull’s head, which apparently adorned the soundboard of the harp (ill. 17 a). Generalized, but very faithfully, the artist conveyed the powerful, full of life bull's head; The swollen, seemingly fluttering nostrils of the animal are well emphasized. The head is inlaid: the eyes, beard and fur on the crown are made of lapis lazuli, the whites of the eyes are made of shells. The image is apparently associated with the cult of animals and with the image of the god Nannar, who was represented, judging by the descriptions of cuneiform texts, in the form of a “strong bull with an azure beard.”

In the tombs of Ur, examples of mosaic art were also found, among which the best is the so-called “standard” (as archaeologists called it): two oblong rectangular plates, fixed in an inclined position like a steep gable roof, made of wood covered with a layer of asphalt with pieces of lapis. azure (background) and shells (figures). This mosaic of lapis lazuli, shell and carnelian forms a colorful design. Divided into tiers according to the tradition already established by this time in Sumerian relief compositions, these plates convey pictures of battles and battles, tell about the triumph of the army of the city of Ur, about captured slaves and tribute, about the rejoicing of the victors. The theme of this “standard”, designed to glorify military activities rulers, reflects the military nature of the state.

The best example sculptural relief Sumer is the stele of Eannatum, called the “Stela of the Vultures” (ill. 19 a, 6). The monument was made in honor of the victory of Eannatum, the ruler of the city of Lagash (25th century BC) over the neighboring city of Umma. The stele is preserved in fragments, but they make it possible to determine the basic principles of the ancient Sumerian monumental relief. Image split horizontal lines on the belts, along which the composition is built. Separate, often multi-temporal episodes unfold in these zones and create a visual narrative of events. Usually the heads of all those depicted are at the same level. The exception is the images of the king and god, whose figures were always made on a much larger scale. This technique emphasized the difference in social status depicted and the leading figure of the composition stood out. The human figures are all exactly the same, they are static, their turn on the plane is conventional: the head and legs are turned in profile, while the eyes and shoulders are shown in front. It is possible that this interpretation is explained (as in Egyptian images) by the desire to show the human figure in such a way that it is perceived especially clearly. On the front side of the “Stele of the Vultures” a large figure of the supreme god of the city of Lagash is depicted, holding a net in which the enemies of Eannatum are caught. On the back of the stele, Eannatum is depicted at the head of his formidable army, walking over the corpses of defeated enemies. On one of the fragments of the stele, flying kites carry away the severed heads of enemy warriors. The inscription on the stele reveals the content of the images, describing the victory of the Lagash army and reporting that the defeated inhabitants of Umma pledged to pay tribute to the gods of Lagash.

Glyptic monuments, that is, carved stones - seals and amulets, are of great value for the history of art of the peoples of Western Asia. They often fill the gaps caused by the lack of monumental art, and allow us to more fully imagine artistic development art of Mesopotamia. Images on cylinder seals of Western Asia (I class="comment"> The usual form of seals of Western Asia is cylindrical, on the round surface of which artists easily placed multi-figure compositions.). They are often distinguished by great skill in execution. Made from various breeds stones, softer for the first half of the 3rd millennium BC. and harder ones (chalcedony, carnelian, hematite, etc.) for the end of the 3rd, as well as the 2nd and 1st millennia BC. extremely primitive instruments, these small works of art are sometimes true masterpieces.

Cylinder seals dating back to the time of Sumer are very diverse. Favorite subjects are mythological, most often associated with the very popular epic in Western Asia about Gilgamesh - a hero of invincible strength and unsurpassed courage. There are seals with images on the themes of the myth of the flood, the flight of the hero Etana on an eagle to the sky for the “grass of birth”, etc. Sumerian cylinder seals are characterized by a conventional, schematic representation of the figures of people and animals, an ornamental composition and the desire to fill the entire surface of the cylinder with an image . As in monumental reliefs, artists strictly adhere to the arrangement of figures, in which all heads are placed at the same level, which is why animals are often represented standing on their hind legs. The motif of Gilgamesh’s struggle with predatory animals that harmed livestock, often found on cylinders, reflects the vital interests of the ancient cattle breeders of Mesopotamia. The theme of the hero fighting with animals was very common in the glyptics of Western Asia and in subsequent times.

Sumer was the first written civilization to exist in southeastern Mesopotamia. 5-4 thousand years BC

Geography: From the ancient Greek language the word “Mesopotamia” is translated as “(country) between the rivers.” Mesopotamia extends between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in their middle and lower reaches. These rivers originate in the mountains of Armenia and in the territory of modern Turkey. It was in the southern part of Mesopotamia that the country we call Sumer was located. And it is there that one should look for the origins of the Sumerian-Akkadian civilization.

Stone construction is developing. Cuneiform appeared - this is a unique system of writing on clay, which used a system of three-dimensional symbols, from the combination of which meaning was born. Such clay tablets are characterized by a lens-shaped shape. A book in the Sumerian tradition is a basket with stone tablets. Cuneiform writing is developing into a unified system. ASSHUR-BONNEPAL LIBRARY.

Temples of Mesopotamia.

The center of each city-state was a temple with a large temple economy allocated to it by the community, in which dependent freemen and slaves worked, and later - exclusively slaves. The oldest example of a Sumerian temple dates back to the late Neolithic period. Although this building, excavated in the city of Eridu (modern Abu Shahrain), was poorly preserved, judging by the layout, all the main features characteristic of the later temples of the southern Mesopotamia were already present. The temple stands on a high platform, to which stairs (or ramps) lead on both sides; the sanctuary itself is somewhat shifted to the edge of the platform and has an internal courtyard open at the top; In essence, the only decoration of the temple is the division of the walls with narrow rectangular niches on the outside and inside. No less characteristic is the absence of windows, which were not needed in the very hot climate of Southern Mesopotamia. For air flow and top-side lighting, rectangular doorways and small openings - vents under the ceiling - were used. Temples dedicated to the gods were built. They were named after the color of the walls. Example: “White” and “Red” temples in Uruk (dedicated to Anu - the god of the sky; decorated with glazed tiles). Tel-ukair - a temple on a high cushion, frescoes, a frieze with lions and leopards have been preserved; many stairs. Built from raw brick. The only discovered example of a public building, the so-called Red Building in the city of Uruk at the end of the 4th millennium BC, dates back to the Uruk and Jemdet-Nasr periods. Its plan is characteristic: a large closed courtyard with a tribune at one of the walls is surrounded by powerful semi-columns and columns made of mud brick. The semi-columns and columns are decorated with geometric patterns, which were obtained as a result of a peculiar technique - using fired stone or clay cones hammered into adobe masonry, the flat-cut ends of which are painted red, black and white. Obviously, this original decoration is an imitation of woven mats. A similar system of surface decoration disappears in the art of Mesopotamia in later periods.

Architecture in the 2nd millennium.

From the middle of the 3rd millennium BC, rulers began to build palaces for themselves. The palace is an overgrown house with a series of courtyards, sometimes with an outer fortress-type wall. The palace of King Zimrilim in Mari dates back to the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC, where ceremonial rooms with wall paintings of a cult nature were opened. The depicted scenes are static, which is usual for religious subjects in the art of Mesopotamia, but very colorful. The content of the images is ornamentally framed processions of gods and cult scenes; Obviously, the interesting scene of collecting dates also has a cult character, although it occupies a subordinate place in the overall composition. Of course, there is no need to talk about fresco painting at this time - before us is simply painting the walls dry.

Ziggurat- a stepped rectangular brick tower, on the first platform there is a temple dedicated to. to some god - an integral part of the temple complex. Example: Ziggurat in Nipur - consisted of three steps of different colors, total height 21 m, width 60x40 m. It was also the oldest observatory. The priests observed the stars, gave names to the planets and gods. This tradition was adopted by the Romans.

Royal Tombs at Ur – large number highly artistic works of art: weapons, helmets, items made of precious metals, stones; a harp decorated with gold, decorated with the head of a bull, was found.

Tomb of Meskalamdug– they found a ceremonial helmet made of gold.

The architecture of the Akkadian period developed in the general mainstream of Mesopotamian architecture, preserving its traditional techniques, such as the horizontal division of walls, by alternating projections (pilasters) and niches, the construction of temples on artificial elevations, etc.

fine arts

The art of early Sumer differs from the monuments of art of the late Neolithic, primarily by its rejection of the conventionality of figures and geometricism (with rare exceptions). On the contrary, there is a clear desire, but the ability to more accurately convey the depicted nature, especially when it comes to reproducing representatives of the animal world. Small figurines of domestic animals - calves, bulls, rams, goats - are made of soft stone (serpentine, sandstone); various scenes related to the life of domestic and wild animals are presented on reliefs, cult vessels, and seals. Many of these images are so accurate that the species and breed of the animal can be easily determined; Their characteristic poses and movements are vividly conveyed. However, no matter how vitally the artist reproduced nature at other times, all these images were subordinated to magical purposes, although, unfortunately, it is not always possible to guess what requirements and tasks magic made for the image in each individual case.

An excellent example of the plastic arts of ancient Mesopotamia, which allows us to judge the characteristic features of the art of this time, is a vessel found in Uruk. The vessel was intended for sacrificial libations and had two necks. On the sides of the drain, as if guarding it, there are two figures of a lion. On the body of the vessel are two lions, rising on their hind legs, attacking two bulls. All the figures are presented in very high relief, and the heads of the animals protrude from the surface, so we can talk about the plastic, sculptural design of the vessel. The bodies of the bulls are somewhat shortened, which creates the appearance of a promising reduction. On a cult vessel from Uruk, which shows us a festive procession with gifts, we clearly see these image features characteristic of ancient Eastern art: figures with the torso turned in front, face in profile, with an eye in front, legs in profile; the animals are presented entirely in profile, the river is rendered in wavy lines.

The main monuments of fine art of ancient Sumerian civilization:

Round or cylindrical seals required for a "signature" and sometimes appearing as amulets.

Heraldic compositions - copper reliefs of temples (coats of arms).

Palettes are plates made of natural stone with carved images.

Steles are stone, marble, granite or wooden slabs with images carved on them, but more often texts. Most often they were installed as a funeral stone.

Dorants are dedicatory figurines of a person in a praying pose.

A sculptural head from Uruk, slightly smaller in size than the natural one, in which the goddess Inanna is supposedly seen (the sculpture was in the temple of Inanna in Uruk), reveals a combination of subtly noted, perhaps even individual, facial features with features interpreted definitely canonically and conventionally (eyebrows, huge inlaid eyes). This gives special expressiveness to the monument, one of the best in the history of fine art of Mesopotamia.

Head of a goddess from the White Temple in Uruk (fertility goddess Ishtar) – flat, 2 meters high. Wavy wig made of gold leaf + inlaid with expensive stones and shells. Monumental plasticity. The binding material is bitumen (local origin).

Standard of “war and peace” from Ur – inlay technique + gold figures + mother-of-pearl + ornament = 3 registers. In fig. In art, the role of the main character is emphasized by size (if the king, then the largest in the image), also the more frills on the skirt, the more magnificent it is, the more important the character.

Epigraphy is the science that studies ancient inscriptions.

Stella of kites, Foundation slabs, Sumerian-Akkadian culture.

Some rulers: Sargon 1, Naram Suen

Capital: Akkad.

Approximately beginning of III millennium BC e. Eastern Semites, the ancestors of the Akkadians, moved to the lands of Upper Mesopotamia, presumably from the Arabian Peninsula. Over time, they borrowed writing from the Sumerians, adapting it to their language, as well as mythology and way of life.

Art monuments:

Bronze head of a statue of King Sargon the Ancient of Akkad. The features are perfectly conveyed: majesty and authority. Sargon the Ancient created a dynasty that ruled for 150 years. He united all of Mesopotamia, created a centralized state with elements of the east. dispotia.

Narm-Suen, the grandson of Sargon, considered himself the god of Akkad, and ordered to be depicted in a headdress with horns.

Despite the fact that the Akkadian kingdom came under attack from the Gutian tribes, cities in the south flourished. In the culture and art of the Akkadian period, the main motif was the idea of the hero. This is either a deified king of humble origin who managed to achieve power, gather and lead a huge army, unite the lands of Mesopotamia and go on a campaign to distant lands. Or he was a man from the bottom of society, who, thanks to his strength and abilities, distinguished himself in military campaigns and was exalted by the king. Thus, in art, the Akkadians attached greater importance to the individual person than the Sumerians in the previous period.

Akkadian craftsmen achieved significant success in making reliefs. The most striking monuments are the stone steles of kings Rimush and Naram-Suen.

The glyptics of Ancient Mesopotamia were traditionally almost always represented by cylinder seals. They were made from colored semi-precious stones, and their imprints depicted various mythological scenes. Unlike monuments of architecture and sculpture, quite a lot of seals from the Akkadian period have survived.

Sculpture. Sculptural images made of different types of stone (limestone, local alabaster sandstone), bronze, and possibly even wood were made primarily for temples. Their size is generally small - up to 35-40 cm.

Frontally located figures are static. They are shown standing, very rarely with one leg extended forward, or sitting. The arms are bent at the elbows and clasped palm to palm at the chest in a pleading gesture. There is a plea in the wide open, straight-looking eyes and lips touched by a smile. The prayerful pose and facial expressions of the petitioner are the main things that needed to be expressed during the execution of this sculpture. There was no religious, magical requirement to embody specific, individual characteristics of the original. The man’s appearance conveyed his characteristic ethnic features as a Sumerian: a large nose, thin lips, a small chin, a large sloping forehead. Through them only the features of a particular person are visible. It is no coincidence that on the back or shoulder of many figures, the name of the one whom the sculpture depicted, as well as the name of the deity to whom it was dedicated, was carved in a rectangular frame.

Master artists of the early dynastic period created typified human figures-symbols. However, in that era, despite the general ideology, there were still no established norms and methods of implementation legitimized by the official tradition and the single supreme secular and religious authority. Each of the sculptures was made without literally repeating or copying others. The modeling of hairstyles, beards, and large strands of wool on clothing is very different. The lines and curls of these strands are deeply cut across the surface of statues and reliefs, sometimes smoothly and lightly, sometimes angularly and dryly. These details, along with the eyes inlaid with black and white stone, enliven the images and make them decorative and elegant.

The statue of Ebikh-Il is made of blue and white stone, his pleadingly raised eyes give the appearance of this bearded man an expression of naivety. Ebikh-Il sits on a round “stool” in full skirt with strands of thick wool decorating it. His entire figure is realistic and proportional. The torso and arms are bare.

Relief images of the early dynastic period, due to the absence of yet unified canonized standards of execution, are marked by a peculiar expressiveness and decorativeness. This is reflected, first of all, in the variety of compositions in different modeling of forms. The sequence of visual narration about a particular event dominates. To convey everything as clearly as possible, individual scenes are distributed with belts, the figure of the main character - a ruler or god - is highlighted in a larger size than others, as if in a larger plan.

The reliefs are carved on a neutral background, not occupied by other images, in clear, more or less flat silhouettes. Faces, as well as figures, are generally typified.

The most common plots: laying of temples, victory over enemies, feast after laying or victory.

The Eanatum Stele was created to commemorate the victory of the city-state of Lagash over one of the neighboring cities of Umma. The stela of Eanatum was undoubtedly carved by a creatively gifted author. Victory is personified by the large figure of the god Ningirsu, which occupies the entire front side of the slab. However, God quite realistically finishes off with his mace the captive warriors of the Ummah floundering in a mesh bag. The relief lines on the other side of the stele are even more specific. Eanatum on a chariot, raising his spear, enters the battle. There are warriors behind him. Above, Eanatum leads the Lagashites on foot. A total of nine warriors' heads are visible above the large shields covering their bodies. There is a feeling of a very large, steadily moving mass of people. This result was obtained using the image of numerous hands protruding from behind the shields, clutching spears.

Strictness, restraint of silhouettes, clarity of forms, fine elaboration of details characterize the golden ceremonial helmet of Meskalamdug. golden vessels - bowls, cups.

As in round plastic and reliefs, all these products are dominated by large divisions that monumentalize them. Their color scheme is based on deep, rich color combinations of the natural colors of semiprecious stones - dark blue lapis lazuli, orange-pink carnelian, gold and silver (i.e., on the natural decorativeness of these materials).

Numerous figures and statues made of dionite are known. Good knowledge of anatomy and portrait is presented.

11.The art of Babylonia. Chronology. Geographical framework. General characteristics phenomena. Bibliography of the issue: M. V. Dobroklonsky. History of arts of foreign countries, volume I, Academy of Arts of the USSR, Gnedich.

The history of the Ancient East and Byzantine art is divided into 2 periods: the Old Babylonian period (20-17 centuries BC) and New Babylonian art (7-6 centuries BC). In the first half of the 2nd millennium BC. The most significant in Mesopotamia was the so-called Old Babylonian culture. It took shape as a result of an important political transformation. King Hammurabi (1792-1750 BC), who ruled on the middle reaches of the Euphrates, united the regions of Sumer and Akkad into one state under the leadership of the city of Babylon, (translated as “Gate of God”). The style of performance of the works of Old Babylonian that have come down to us pores testifies to the vitality of the traditions of Sumerian-Akkaan art at that time.

Sculpture. The diorite stele of King Hammurabi, with a code of laws and a relief in its upper part, is the most characteristic monument of the era. The relief composition on the stele is symbolic. This is an investiture - the scene of King Hammurabi receiving signs of power from the sun god Shamash. Shamash, sitting on a schematically rendered ziggurat, hands the king a coiled rope and a staff, and perhaps also measures of length, that is, the attributes of a builder. The deity, as it were, transfers to the ruler of the country, his chief servant, the authority to act on his behalf, the deity, and for his glorification. The composition of two figures of a god and a king, placed opposite each other, is distinguished by its balance. On the uneven, strongly protruding, almost triangular face of the stone, this was not easy to achieve. The folds of clothes and strands of hair of the characters are worked out, cut into picturesque indentations, taking into account the play of light and shadow. The king's face is thin, with strongly sunken cheeks and prominent high cheekbones, portrait-like. The last circumstance particularly clearly confirms the high artistic level of the monument’s execution. The perception of the realistic achievements of Akkadian art by Neo-Babylonian artists becomes undeniable. The plasticity of the Old Babylonian period is equally clearly represented by a diorite male head from a statue, possibly of King Hammurabi. Given the monumental compactness of the total volume of the head, all parts of it are rendered plastically, softly and picturesquely. There is no doubt that the sharp, strong-willed, even stern features of the narrow face with sunken cheeks are portrait-like. Monuments of the 18th century BC from the city-state of Mari, on the middle Euphrates, from the western outskirts of Babylonia, are the most valuable evidence of the style of Old Babylonian art. The head of Mari was the ruler Zimrilim. Archaeological excavations have uncovered the ruins of the Zimri Lim Palace. which was a vast architectural ensemble. This palace was built from mud brick during the second half of the 3rd millennium BC. e. Decorative ornamental stripes were applied to the lower plinth parts of the walls. The alabaster statue of the goddess Ishtar from her temple in the Zimrilim palace is also distinguished by its high artistic qualities. Being a little over one meter in height, it is very monumental. This quality is imparted to the statue by a calm frontal setting, as well as a very slight dissection of the overall cylindrical volume of the figure and each of its parts, highlighted only by a large mass. The goddess's dress gently falls to the ground like a heavy bell. Light folds encircling the robe enliven this columnar shape. The fingers and feet of the goddess protrude slightly from under the raised edge of the skirt in front. The upper part of the sculpture - the torso and head in a spherical cap - a tiara, which is crowned with two massive large horns, smoothly curved above the forehead - completes this sculpture like a capital. The goddess is represented by a beautiful woman with a broad face, breathing inner strength. Large strands of hair lie on her sloping shoulders in two twisted braids. Massive round earrings with six rows of round necklace beads. She supports a massive jug at her waist with both hands. This is the goddess in whose power the origins of life. She carries pure spring water - the “water of life” - to people in this vessel. From a hole drilled through the statue, from the neck of a jug, a stream of water once poured out, of course, with the help of the priests, in response to prayers. The city-state of Mari was an ally of Babylon for almost four decades. But at the end of this period, its existence was stopped by the aggressive campaign of King Hammurabi. Hammurabi's warriors, having besieged and captured the city and the palace, plundered and destroyed everything.

Neo-Babylonian art. (7-6 centuries BC) From the end of the 2nd millennium BC. e., after the fall of the Kassite dynasty, Babylonia was in a state of complete economic and political helplessness. The new short-term rise of Babylon began at the end of the 7th century. BC, when (in 626 BC) the military leader Nabopolassar seized supreme power in Babylon. He managed to include the former possessions of Assyria, as well as most of Mesopotamia, Elam, all of Syria, Phenicia and Palestine into Babylonia. The development of the culture of the time of New Babylon occurred under the strong influence of the culture of Assyria, which it destroyed.

Architecture. Architecture was the main type of Neo-Babylonian art. A clear indication of this is the city of Babylon, transformed over the decades of its last heyday into an architectural ensemble that was integral in layout and style. Located on both banks of the Euphrates, Babylon had the shape of an elongated rectangle in plan and was divided by the river into two parts. More ancient areas, the so-called Old City, were located on the eastern bank. The defense of Babylon was served by four complexes of battlements with towers - buttresses made of mud and baked bricks with the addition of stone masonry, as well as a deep ditch. The length of the inner wall was over 3 km, and the outer ones - 18 km. It was possible to enter the city through eight bastion gates dedicated to different gods. From each gate began straight, wide streets, precessional roads, which clearly divided the city into large sections. Inside these quarters there were streets, unlike the Sumerian ones, quite regularly planned, but not wide: the distance between the blank walls of residential buildings on their sides was no more than 4 m. The typical layout of dwellings built from mud brick, the estates of Babylon, is a grouping of rooms around the central courtyard Sanctuary god Marduk-Esagil. In the city that was the center religious life power, there were 53 significant large temples and several hundred small sanctuaries and altars. The most important of them was the sanctuary of the supreme god Marduk-Esagil, which was a sacred site with an area of 16 hectares. Its vast territory was distinguished among the residential areas of the city by the fact that it was surrounded by a double wall, whose massiveness created the impression of a fortress stronghold: the wall had 12 entrances and gates. The main “sacred” gate was entered into the territory of the sanctuary of Marduk-Esagila from the most important processional road, laid from the Ishtar gate. Opposite this gate, on the other side of the sacred precinct, was the enormous mass of the famous ziggurat, the so-called Tower of Babel.

Art of Sumer (27-25 centuries BC)

At the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. the growth of class contradictions led to the formation of the first small slave states in Mesopotamia, in which the vestiges of the primitive communal system were still very strong. Initially, such states became individual cities (with adjacent rural settlements), usually located in the sites of ancient temple centers. There were continuous wars between them for the possession of the main irrigation canals, for the seizure of the best lands, slaves and livestock.

Earlier than others, the Sumerian city-states of Ur, Uruk, Lagash and others arose in the south of Mesopotamia. Subsequently, economic reasons gave rise to a tendency to unite into larger state formations, which was usually accomplished with the help of military force. In the second half of the 3rd millennium, Akkad rose in the north, whose ruler, Sargon I, united most of Mesopotamia under his rule, creating a single and powerful Sumerian-Akkadian kingdom. The royal government, which represented the interests of the slave-owning elite, especially since the time of Akkad, became despotic. The priesthood, which was one of the pillars of ancient Eastern despotism, developed a complex cult of the gods and deified the power of the king. A major role in the religion of the peoples of Mesopotamia was played by the worship of the forces of nature and remnants of the cult of animals. The gods were depicted as people, animals and fantastic creatures of supernatural power: winged lions, bulls, etc.

The main building material for buildings in Mesopotamia was raw brick, much less often baked brick. The design feature of monumental architecture was going back to the 4th millennium BC. the use of artificially erected platforms, which is explained, perhaps, by the need to isolate the building from the dampness of the soil, moistened by spills, and at the same time, probably, by the desire to make the building visible from all sides. Another characteristic feature, based on an equally ancient tradition, was the broken line of the wall formed by the projections. Windows, when they were made, were placed at the top of the wall and looked like narrow slits. The buildings were also illuminated through a doorway and a hole in the roof. The roofs were mostly flat, but there was also a vault. Residential buildings discovered by excavations in the south of Sumer had an internal open courtyard around which covered rooms were grouped. This layout, which corresponded to the climatic conditions of the country, formed the basis for the palace buildings of the southern Mesopotamia. In the northern part of Sumer, houses were discovered that, instead of an open courtyard, had a central room with a ceiling. Residential buildings were sometimes two-story, with blank walls facing the street, as is often the case to this day in eastern cities.

Along the wall, in the niches between the ledges, there were very expressive copper figures of walking bulls. Higher up, the surface of the wall was decorated with three friezes, located at some distance from one another: a high relief with images of lying bulls made of copper and two with a flat mosaic relief laid out of white mother-of-pearl on black slate plates. In this way, a color scheme was created that echoed the colors of the platforms. On one of the friezes, scenes of economic life were quite clearly depicted, possibly having cult significance, on the other - sacred birds and animals walking in a line.

The copper high relief placed above the entrance to the sanctuary, turning in places into a round sculpture, was executed with undoubted skill; it depicts a lion-headed eagle clawing deer. This composition, repeated with minor variations on a number of monuments of the mid-3rd millennium BC. (on a silver vase of the ruler Entemena, votive plates made of stone and bitumen, etc.), was apparently the emblem of the god Nin-Girsu. A feature of the relief is a very clear, symmetrical heraldic composition, which later became one of the characteristic features of the Western Asian relief.

The ziggurat in Uret, erected in the 22nd - 21st centuries BC, has been preserved better than others, rebuilt many times. (reconstruction). It consisted of three massive towers, built one above the other and forming wide, possibly landscaped terraces, connected by stairs. The lower part had a rectangular base 65x43 m, the walls reached 13 m in height. The total height of the building at one time reached 21 m (which is equal to a five-story building today). There was usually no interior space in a ziggurat, or it was reduced to a minimum, to one small room. The towers of the ziggurat of Ur were of different colors: the lower one was black, coated with bitumen, the middle one was red (the natural color of baked brick), the upper one was white. On the upper terrace, where the “home of God” was located, religious mysteries took place; it may also have served as an observatory for the stargazer priests. Monumentality, which was achieved by massiveness, simplicity of shapes and volumes, as well as clarity of proportions, created the impression of grandeur and power and was a distinctive feature of ziggurat architecture. With its monumentality, the ziggurat is reminiscent of the pyramids of Egypt.

Plastic art of the mid-3rd millennium BC. characterized by the predominance of small sculpture, mainly for religious purposes; its execution is still quite primitive.

The extreme south of Mesopotamia (the cities of Ur, Lagash, etc.) is characterized by almost complete indivisibility of the stone block and a very summary interpretation of the details. Squat figures with an almost absent neck, a beak-shaped nose and large eyes predominate. The body proportions are not respected. The sculptural monuments of the northern part of the southern Mesopotamia (the cities of Ashnunak, Khafaj, etc.) are distinguished by more elongated proportions, greater elaboration of details, and a desire for a naturalistically accurate representation of the external features of the model, albeit with greatly exaggerated eye sockets and excessively large noses.

Metal-plastic and other types of artistic craft were distinguished by great perfection in Ancient Sumer. This is evidenced by the well-preserved burial goods of the so-called “royal tombs” of the 27th - 26th centuries. BC, discovered in Ur. Finds in the tombs speak of class differentiation in Ur of this time and of a developed cult of the dead, associated with the custom of human sacrifices, which were widespread here. The luxurious utensils of the tombs were skillfully made of precious metals (gold and silver) and various stones (alabaster, lapis lazuli, obsidian, etc.). Among the finds from the “royal tombs”, a golden helmet of the finest work from the tomb of the ruler Meskalamdug, reproducing a wig with the smallest details of an intricate hairstyle, stands out. Very good is a golden dagger with a scabbard of fine filigree work from the same tomb and other objects that amaze with the variety of shapes and elegance of decoration. The goldsmiths' art in depicting animals reaches particular heights, as can be judged by the beautifully executed bull's head, which apparently adorned the soundboard of the harp. Generally, but very faithfully, the artist conveyed the powerful, full of life head of a bull; The swollen, seemingly fluttering nostrils of the animal are well emphasized. The head is inlaid: the eyes, beard and fur on the crown are made of lapis lazuli, the whites of the eyes are made of shells. The image is apparently associated with the cult of animals and with the image of the god Nannar, who was represented, judging by the descriptions of cuneiform texts, in the form of a “strong bull with an azure beard.”

In the tombs of Ur, examples of mosaic art were also found, among which the best is the so-called “standard” (as archaeologists called it): two oblong rectangular plates, fixed in an inclined position like a steep gable roof, made of wood covered with a layer of asphalt with pieces of lapis. azure (background) and shells (figures). This mosaic of lapis lazuli, shell and carnelian forms a colorful design. Divided into tiers according to the tradition already established by this time in Sumerian relief compositions, these plates convey pictures of battles and battles, tell about the triumph of the army of the city of Ur, about captured slaves and tribute, about the rejoicing of the victors. The theme of this “standard”, designed to glorify the military activities of the rulers, reflects the military nature of the state.

The best example of the sculptural relief of Sumer is the stele of Eannatum, called the “Stele of the Vultures”. The monument was made in honor of the victory of Eannatum, the ruler of the city of Lagash (25th century BC) over the neighboring city of Umma. The stele is preserved in fragments, but they make it possible to determine the basic principles of the ancient Sumerian monumental relief. The image is divided by horizontal lines into belts, along which the composition is built. Separate, often multi-temporal episodes unfold in these zones and create a visual narrative of events. Usually the heads of all those depicted are at the same level. The exception is the images of the king and god, whose figures were always made on a much larger scale. This technique emphasized the difference in the social status of those depicted and highlighted the leading figure of the composition. The human figures are all exactly the same, they are static, their turn on the plane is conventional: the head and legs are turned in profile, while the eyes and shoulders are shown in front. It is possible that this interpretation is explained (as in Egyptian images) by the desire to show the human figure in such a way that it is perceived especially clearly. On the front side of the “Stele of the Vultures” a large figure of the supreme god of the city of Lagash is depicted, holding a net in which the enemies of Eannatum are caught. On the back of the stele, Eannatum is depicted at the head of his formidable army, walking over the corpses of defeated enemies. On one of the fragments of the stele, flying kites carry away the severed heads of enemy warriors. The inscription on the stele reveals the content of the images, describing the victory of the Lagash army and reporting that the defeated inhabitants of Umma pledged to pay tribute to the gods of Lagash.

Glyptic monuments, that is, carved stones - seals and amulets, are of great value for the history of art of the peoples of Western Asia. They often fill in the gaps caused by the lack of monuments of monumental art, and allow us to more fully imagine the artistic development of the art of Mesopotamia. Images on cylinder seals of Western Asia (I class="comment"> The usual form of seals of Western Asia is cylindrical, on the round surface of which artists easily placed multi-figure compositions.). They are often distinguished by great skill in execution. Made from various types of stones, softer for the first half of the 3rd millennium BC. and harder ones (chalcedony, carnelian, hematite, etc.) for the end of the 3rd, as well as the 2nd and 1st millennia BC. extremely primitive instruments, these small works of art are sometimes true masterpieces.

Tuppum clay tablet from Shuruppak, c. BC. e.

Very few architectural monuments of the Sumerian era have survived. The most significant buildings that have survived to this day are considered to be the White Temple and the Red Building in Uruk (BC) reconstruction of the plan of the White Temple temple in Uruk. End of the 4th millennium BC e.

Sumerian temples were built on a compacted clay platform. Long stairs or ramps led to it - gently sloping platforms. Raised above the residential part of the city, the temple reminded people of indissoluble bond Heaven and Earth. The temple had no windows; light entered the premises through openings under flat roofs and high entrances in the form of arches. Fragment of a Sumerian mosaic on the half-columns of the Red Building in Uruk

The walls of the platform, like the walls of the temple, were painted, decorated with mosaics, and decorated with niches and vertical rectangular projections - blades. The temple - a low, thick-walled rectangular building with an inner courtyard - had no windows. On one side there was a statue of a deity, on the other - a table for sacrifices.

The most common type of sculpture was Adorant (from Latin “admiring, praying”) a figurine of a person made from soft stones, and later clay, installed in the temple in order to pray for the person who placed it. On the shoulder of the odorant there was usually an inscription embossed indicating who its owner was. There are known finds where the first inscription was erased and later replaced by another.

"Standard" from the tomb at Ur. War panel. III millennium BC e. British Museum, London. Mosaic of mother-of-pearl, shells, red limestone and lapis lazuli. Opponents die under the wheels of heavy chariots pulled by kulans. The wounded and humiliated captives are brought to the king. Another panel depicts a feasting scene. The feasters are entertained by playing the harp.

Standard of War and Peace - a pair of inlaid decorative panels discovered by L. Woolley's expedition during excavations of the Sumerian city of Ur. On each of the plates, on a lapis lazuli background, scenes from the life of the Sumerians are laid out in three rows with mother-of-pearl plates. The artifact dates back to the mid-3rd millennium BC. e. Dimensions 21.59 x 49.53 cm.

In 2003 BC. e. Sumer and Akkad ceased to exist after the army of neighboring Elam invaded its borders and destroyed the capital of the kingdom - the city of Ur. Period from 20th to 17th centuries. BC e. called Old Babylonian (capital Babylon). Ruler Hammurabi (BC)

The states created by the Hittites and Hurrians did not last long, but their creativity was reflected in the art of subsequent eras. The Hittite kingdom, which arose in the 18th century. BC e., reached its peak by the centuries. Its military strength allowed it to compete with Egypt and Assyria. However, at the end of the 12th century. BC e. it died from the invasion of nomadic tribes - the so-called “peoples of the sea”.

A powerful, aggressive state, whose borders in its heyday extended from the Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf. The Assyrians brutally dealt with the enemy: they destroyed cities, carried out mass executions, sold tens of thousands of people into slavery, and resettled entire nations. But at the same time, the conquerors paid great attention to cultural heritage conquered countries, studying artistic principles foreign skill. Combining the traditions of many cultures, Assyrian art acquired a unique appearance.

The fate of the Neo-Babylonian kingdom is striking in its dramatic alternation of ups and downs. The history of Babylonia is an endless series of military conflicts. Only after Assyria ceased to exist was Babylonia able to achieve a dominant position in Western Asia. Its heyday began during the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II (BC).

Royal tombs at Ur.

Near the city of Ur in the 19th century, archaeologists excavated the so-called. "royal tombs" dating back to the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. This is the time of the 1st dynasty of the kings of Ur.

These are underground shaft tombs had 1-3 rooms made of stone or brick. The burial ritual required human sacrifices, the number of which ranged from 3 to 74 people.

1) Tomb of the king named Meskalamdut "the good genius of the country." He himself lay in a wooden coffin. His name was carved on a golden lamp, on dishes made of gold and silver, stone and ceramics. A golden helmet was found, shaped like an elaborate hairstyle.

2) Tomb of Queen Shub-Ad: She was accompanied by 10 richly dressed women with harps in their hands. The queen's skeleton was strewn with jewels, and there were wreaths of golden leaves and flowers on her head. A cape woven from red, blue and gold beads was thrown over the skeleton. On her shoulder lay a seal of lapis lazuli, on which was engraved Shub-Ad, lady.” Many things made of gold, lapis lazuli.

3) In another tomb, the skeletons of 6 bulls harnessed to carts with silver rings in their nostrils, 9 skeletons of women in red robes, in golden headdresses, warriors in helmets and copper military armor were found. In total, more than 60 human victims were buried here, accompanying the deceased to the grave. Lots of gold and silver items. But the most important find is harp, decorated with gold, inlaid with blue lapis lazuli and shell. The bull is a symbol of the moon god, depicted realistically. Menacing appearance. Under the chin is a plaque depicting a hero fighting two bulls. This is Gilgamesh. The image of Gilgamesh is found everywhere in the art of Mesopotamia. .Many fantastic animals are depicted on this plaque.

That. The burials of the kings of Mesopotamia testify to the nature of beliefs, about afterlife, which requires special rituals.

Architecture of Mesopotamia.

Architectural monuments - palaces, residential buildings, small temples made of raw brick - are poorly preserved due to the damp climate.

Residential houses were built from reeds. Temples and palaces are made of mud brick. Due to the flooding of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, houses and temples were built on high ground. A staircase led there. Cities, palaces of kings and temples were surrounded by fortress walls.

Examples architectural structures– ruins of the White Temple and Red Temple. They are characterized by decorativeness. The columns were decorated with ornaments - the so-called. "nails" of red, black and white from baked clay.

Temples were dedicated to the gods.

The most typical temple is the ziggurat. The most famous ziggurat is the Tower of Babel.

Ziggurat at Ur

Dedicated to the Moon God Nannara. Built in the 22nd century BC.

Ziggurat- a three-stage temple made of mud brick. The outside and ceilings are covered with clay. Length and width 65x43 m. Height 20 m. Initially it was possibly 60 m. Three terrace steps were painted in three colors - like three worlds. The lower highest part is black (covered with bitumen). 2nd terrace – transitional middle world, burnt red brick. The third terrace is white. (whitewashed) is the upper world. Above above is the dwelling place of God blue. This is a heavenly world. The walls were covered with a layer of blue glazed brick. A middle staircase with 100 steps led to the god's dwelling. On the sides there are two flights of stairs converging on the upper platform - this is a symbol of the union of the Moon God Nannara and the Sun Goddess Ningal. They performed rituals dedicated to the gods in the temple.

Sculpture of Sumer and Akkad.

Sumerian sculpture.

Most early sculpture dates back to 29-24 centuries BC. era of early dynastic Sumer.

Sculptors created images of gods, rulers (kings) and adorants, i.e. figures of people praying before the deity, as well as sculptures of bulls, lions and other animals.

Characterized by conventionality, monumentality and decorativeness.

For example, small sculptures of rulers Kurlilya and Ebikh Ilya. Appearance executed conditionally, although depicted real people. The ethnic features of a Sumerian are conveyed - a large nose, thin lips, a high forehead. There is no portrait resemblance. Proportions are shortened, poses are calm. Expression of prayer.

Shown frontally (viewed from the front), they were designed for the wall.

His name was carved on Kurlil's back.

The sculpture of Ebikh Ilya is carved from white and blue stone.

The eyes were encrusted, conveying the hairstyle and beard.

Sculpture Late Sumerian(22-20 centuries BC).

Under the ruler Gudea, the city of Lagash rises. Intensive construction is underway.

Sculpture of Gudea made of diorite. The height is slightly more than 1 m. – shortened proportions. The face is portrait. There is a sheep's wool cap on the head and a cloak is thrown over the shoulders.

Sculpture of adorants. for temples, size 35-40 cm, made of limestone, sandstone, bronze and possibly wood. Those praying were depicted on their knees before the deity. Wide open eyes and a smile convey a plea.

Reliefs on steles made of limestone story compositions on the topics of victory over enemies, laying the foundation of a temple, etc. Example: The Kite Stele from Lagash commemorates the victory of King Ennatum in the war. The stele has a height of 75 cm.

Ennatum is depicted as a victorious leader. His army marches, trampling underfoot the bodies of their enemies. On the front side is Ningirsu, the supreme god of Lagash. Keeps a net with defeated enemies.