The Federal Republic of Germany is a modern state located in the center of Europe. State borders of the state are Poland and the Czech Republic in the east, with Switzerland and Austria in the south, Denmark in the north, and western borders with Luxembourg, France, the Netherlands and Belgium.
The capital of the state is the city of Berlin, but many ministries and departments are located in Bonn. Germany consists of 16 federal sovereign states. The form of government in the state is parliamentary, the highest power belongs to the legislative body, the Bundestag.
Relief and climate of Germany
The territory of Germany is characterized by plains and depressions, but the Alps mountain system begins in the south of the country. The central part consists of foothills covered with mixed forests.
There are many deep rivers flowing through the state, the largest of which are the Danube, Rhine, Weser, Elbe and Oder. All rivers are connected to each other by canals. Lakes are also very common in the country. Lake Constance is the largest, its depth is 260 m, and its total area is 550 km2.
The climatic weather conditions in the country are very unstable: the heat is replaced by a sharp cold snap. Due to the large number of rivers, Germany is characterized by frequent floods.
Due to the fact that the country is located on the Eurasian plate and has no internal intersections between tectonic plates, earthquakes are rare here. The average annual temperature is + 6 - + 12, which is very typical for the temperate climate zone.
Population of the state
The population of Germany is 83 million inhabitants. Over the past decade, annual growth has decreased significantly, and today is approximately 0.1%.
Germany has a high level of urbanization of the population, 92% of the population is urban. The country's largest cities are Hamburg, Berlin, Munich and Cologne. Germany is a mono-ethnic country, the number of ethnic Germans is 94%.
The majority of German residents are Christians, with Catholicism and Lutheranism occupying the dominant positions. Due to immigrants from the countries of the Middle East, Islam makes up 6%, significantly ahead of Orthodoxy and Judaism.
Economy of modern Germany
Despite elevated unemployment rates caused by the recent economic crisis, Germany has the fifth-highest GDP per capita in the world. Germany is a country with a highly developed industry.
The industry is represented by electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, automotive, chemical and coal industries. With the exception of the central region, the territory of the state is poor in raw materials.
Therefore, mining and manufacturing production is represented only by the coal industry. Germany is the world's leading exporter of automobiles and electronic equipment. These areas of economic production are monopolized by large enterprises.
Agriculture lags significantly behind industrial production, but the state is pursuing an active policy to strengthen it. This is already giving visible results today: the state exports cereals, grapes, fodder crops, as well as livestock products.
Sometimes Germany is called, and very often, “The Land of Poets and Thinkers,” which aptly characterizes this country, located in the very center of Europe. The Germans carefully preserve their traditions, which date back almost a thousand years. Apparently, because of this, tens of millions of tourists visit Germany every year. Moreover, about 10 million tourists come to Berlin every year. Such statistics are quite understandable, given that Germany has a lot of interesting attractions, beach resorts, balneological resorts and high-quality ski slopes in the Alps.
Geography of Germany
Germany is located in Central Europe. In the north, this country borders with Denmark, in the east with the Czech Republic and Poland, in the south with Austria and Switzerland, and in the west with Luxembourg, the Netherlands, France and Belgium. Germany is washed in the northwest by the Baltic Sea, and in the northeast by the North Sea. The total area of this country is 357,021 km. sq. The highest point in Germany is the Zugspitze mountain in the Alps (2,962 meters).
There are a lot of rivers in Germany, the longest of which are the Rhine, Elbe, Weser, Danube and Oder.
Capital
The capital of Germany is Berlin. The history of this city begins approximately in the first half of the 13th century. Now the population of Berlin already exceeds 3.5 million people.
Official language of Germany
In Germany, the official language is German, which is a Germanic branch of the Indo-European languages.
Religion
The main religion in Germany is Christianity (about 63% of the population). 30% of Christians in Germany are Catholics and 29.9% are Protestants. Catholics mainly live in the south and west of Germany, while Protestants live in the north and east.
1.6% of the German population consider themselves Orthodox Christians, and about 5% are Muslims (mostly Sunnis). There are many atheists living in East Germany and in the big cities.
State structure
Germany is a federal parliamentary republic. The head of state is the president (he is elected by the Federal Assembly, which includes members of the Bundestag and state delegates). There are 16 federal (autonomous) states in Germany.
The second most senior official in Germany is the Bundeschancellor (Bundestagspräsident), who is elected by the Bundestag (Parliament).
The main political parties in Germany are the Social Democratic Party of Germany, the Christian Social Union, the SPD, the Christian Democratic Union, the Party of Democratic Socialism, the Union 90/Greens and the Free Democratic Party of Germany.
Climate and weather
Germany has a generally temperate continental climate with warm summers and rather cold winters (characterized by quite noticeable temperature fluctuations). In northwestern Germany and in coastal areas the climate is maritime with warm summers and mild, cloudy winters. In the south of the country the climate is mountainous with low temperatures and heavy precipitation.
The average air temperature in Germany is about +9 C. In January, which is the coldest month, the average annual temperature in the north is about +1.6 C, and in the south - -2 C. In July, the warmest month, the average annual temperature the temperature in the north is +16-18 C, and in the south - +19.4 C.
Every year in Germany there is an average of about 400-600 mm of precipitation.
Sea in Germany
Germany is washed by the waters of the North (in the north-west) and Baltic (in the north-east) seas. The total coastline is 2,389 km.
The largest German island is the island of Rügen, which is located in the Baltic Sea. Its area reaches 926 km. sq. About 75 thousand people now live on this island. Another large island of Germany is Femern (it is also located in the Baltic Sea).
Rivers and lakes
Most rivers in Germany flow into the North Sea. These are the rivers Rhine, Ems, Weser, Saale and Elbe. The Oder flows into the Baltic Sea.
The largest rivers in Germany are, as you probably know, the Rhine and Danube. On the German border in the foothills of the Alps lies Lake Constance, the largest lake in Germany. Its area is 536 km. sq. In general, there are a lot of lakes in Germany, among which we should definitely mention Chiemsee, Wannsee, Eibsee, and Langer Waldsee.
History of Germany
Germanic tribes came to the territory of modern Germany from Scandinavia around 100 BC. The Germanic tribes living east of the Rhine after some time fell under the rule of Ancient Rome, and the tribes west of the Rhine gave a worthy rebuff to the Romans and lived freely.
Around 800 AD. Charlemagne formed the Carolingian Empire, and Germany became part of it. In the 10th century, the Holy Roman Empire appeared, formed around the German lands.
During the time of the Hohenstaufen emperors (1138-1254), lands in the east inhabited by the Slavs were annexed to Germany.
In 1517, under the influence of Martin Luther, the Reformation of the Catholic Church began in Germany, as a result of which several Protestant churches appeared, including the Lutheran Church.
In 1806, the Holy Roman Empire, consisting mainly of German and Austrian lands, was occupied by the armies of the French Emperor Bonaparte. After the end of the Napoleonic Wars, the German Confederation was formed (it included 39 sovereign German states).
In 1871, the German Empire was proclaimed at Versailles in France, headed by Emperor Wilhelm I. Prussia played a decisive role in Germany at that time.
After the First World War, German Emperor Wilhelm II (in 1918) abdicated power, as a result of which the country was forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles, which historians believe caused the Second World War.
In the first half of the 1930s, Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers' Party came to power in Germany. Events developed in such a way that World War II could no longer be avoided, and it began on September 1, 1939. This bloodiest war in human history lasted for six years. As a result, Germany was defeated and was divided into two parts - East (GDR) and West (FRG) Germany.
In 1989, under the influence of many factors (including due to interference in its internal affairs by some capitalist states), the Communist Party was liquidated in the GDR, after which the Berlin Wall was destroyed, and Germany was reunified (this happened in October 1990).
Now Germany is part of the NATO military-political bloc and is a member of the European Union.
German culture
The history of Germany goes back many hundreds of years, and therefore the Germans, of course, have a very rich culture, which had (and continues to do so) a great influence on the culture of neighboring peoples (Austrians, Dutch and Swiss).
Thanks to Germany, the world received a large number of brilliant writers, artists, philosophers and scientists:
- Literature (Goethe, Schiller, Heine, Thomas Mann, Kafka, Erich Maria Remarque);
- Classical music (Bach, Beethoven, Mozart and Richard Wagner);
- Art (Kollwitz, Dürer and Paul Klee);
- Psychology (Jung);
- Philosophy (Kant, Schopenhauer and Friedrich Nietzsche);
- Science (Einstein, Kepler, Roentgen, Planck and Virchow).
In general, some literary scholars call Germany “The Land of Poets and Thinkers.” Judging by the number of poets and philosophers born in Germany, this name is true.
Germany cannot be imagined without traditional German holidays and festivals. The most popular and famous of them are the Oktoberfest beer festival in Munich, Walpurgis Night, the Love Parade (July), the M'era Luna music festival in Hildesheim (August), the Wave-Gotik-Treffen festival of gothic art and music in Leipzig (August), Nibelung Festival (August) and Kiel Week (July).
Kitchen
Germany is made up of several dozen previously independent principalities, which means there is great regional diversity in German cuisine.
Some tourists believe that German cuisine contains a lot of heavy and fatty dishes, and perhaps they are right in some ways, but the situation has changed in the last 200 years. Thanks to the influence of the Italians and the French, German cuisine has become more refined and sophisticated. Thus, the cuisine of the southern lands of Germany (Bavaria and Swabia) was greatly influenced by the culinary traditions of Switzerland and Austria.
We advise tourists in Germany to try various German sausages, frankfurters, schnitzels, cutlets and steaks, as well as the following traditional dishes: German sausage soup, Eintopf "Pichelstein", pork roll, Saxon potato soup, Wismar fish, goulash with lecho , German herring, Berlin apple pie, and speculative biscuits.
The national alcoholic drink in Germany is beer. The Germans produce beer of various types, and in huge quantities. Moreover, the strength of beer can reach up to 12% alcohol.
Germany also produces excellent wine (mostly white). The main German wine regions are Aar, Baden, Württemberg, Mosel, and Rheinhessen.
Sights of Germany
In Germany they are very careful about their history. Now in this country there are about 4,700 museums that house unique archaeological, historical and ethnographic artifacts. There are so many attractions in Germany that we will highlight the ten best of them, in our opinion:
Cities and resorts
The largest German cities are Berlin (about 3.5 million people), Hamburg (about 1.8 million people, Munich (more than 1.5 million people), and Cologne (1.1 million people) The main ports are Frankfurt am Main, Lübeck and Husum.
In Germany there are many ski and medical (balneological and mud) resorts. Ski resorts are located in the Alps on the border with Austria. The most popular of them are Garmisch-Partenkirchen, the Berchtesgaden region (Berchtesgaden, Schönau am Königssee, Bischofswiesen, Marktschellenberg and Rams) and Oberstdorf.
The most famous German health resorts are Bad Homburg in Hesse, Bad Kissingen in Bavaria, Bad Reichenhall in Berchtesgaden, and, of course, Baden-Baden.
Souvenirs/shopping
- Beer mugs and glasses;
- Wine glasses;
- Traditional German hats;
- Cuckoo clock;
- German toys;
- Football souvenirs;
- Porcelain dolls in vague national costumes;
- Ship models (they are sold in Hamburg);
- German wines (we recommend paying attention to Affentaler Spätburgunder);
- German beer.
Office hours
Bank opening hours:
Mon-Fri: from 8:30 to 16:00, some until 17:30
Post offices:
Mon-Fri: from 08:00 to 18:00
Sat: from 08:00 to 12:00
Government institutions:
Mon-Fri: from 09:00 to 17:00
Stores:
Mon-Sat: from 08:30 to 18:00
Visa
Ukrainians need a visa to enter Germany.
Currency
The beginning of the Cold War in 1946-1947 and the growing confrontation between the USSR and the Western powers made it impossible to recreate a unified German state. The differences in the approach of the USSR and the USA to solving the German problem turned out to be insurmountable. The USSR advocated the reunification of Germany, its demilitarization and neutral status. The United States opposed the neutral status of a united Germany. They sought to see Germany as a dependent ally. As a result of the USSR's victory in the war, the countries of Eastern Europe came under its control. Power in them gradually passed to local communists loyal to the USSR. The United States and Western states, in opposition to the USSR, sought to maintain West Germany in their sphere of influence. This predetermined the state split in Germany.
Western states decided to create a special West German state in those territories that were under their occupation control. For this purpose, an Economic Council was established in Frankfurt from representatives of the Landtags of the states. He resolved financial and economic issues. The Economic Council had a majority of the CDU, CSU and FDP parties, which advocated a social market economy. In 1948, by decision of the Economic Council, monetary reform took place in the three western occupation zones. A stable German mark was introduced into circulation, and price controls were abolished. West Germany embarked on the path of creating a social market economy, and its economic revival began.
In 1948, to develop and adopt a draft constitution for the West German state, a special Parliamentary Council was convened - the Constituent Assembly, elected by the Landtags of the West German states. The draft constitution was developed in committees of the Parliamentary Council with the participation of German jurists and approved by military governors. In May 1949, the Parliamentary Council adopted the Basic Law. It received ratification and approval from the Landtags of the West German states, except for Bavaria, but is also valid for it, and came into force. This is how the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) came into being. It covered half of the former territory of the country and two-thirds of the Germans lived there. Western states adopted an occupation statute in 1949. He limited the sovereignty of the Federal Republic of Germany in the field of foreign policy, defense, and foreign trade until 1955. Germany is still occupied by American troops.
The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany is officially called the Basic Law, since when adopted, this act was considered temporary until the unification of the German lands into a single state, after which it was planned to develop a constitution for a united Germany. According to the Basic Law, Germany was open to the annexation of the remaining German states. After German unity is achieved, the Basic Law applies to the entire German people and ceases to be valid on the day when a new constitution comes into force, which will be adopted by the free decision of the German people. The Constitution of 1949 was also called Bonn - after the name of the new capital of the Federal Republic of Germany - Bonn.
In the Soviet zone of occupation, that is, in the eastern part of Germany, in October 1949, its own constitution was adopted, created on the Soviet model, and the German Democratic Republic (GDR) was proclaimed. As a result, a long forty-year period of existence of two independent German states began. They did not remain neutral, but entered into military-political alliances opposing each other. In 1955, Germany joined NATO, and the GDR joined the Warsaw Pact.
The GDR included five German states. Soon, in 1952, the lands on the territory of the GDR were legally abolished and fourteen territorial districts were formed. The Chamber of Lands was abolished in 1958. The parliament of the GDR - the People's Chamber - became unicameral. The GDR, established as a federal state, became a unitary state.
Territory - 356.9 thousand km 2.
Population - 82.3 million people. (2000).
The capital is Berlin.
Geographical location, general overview
Germany is a state in Central Europe. It borders the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France, Switzerland, Austria, the Czech Republic, Poland, Denmark.
The peculiarities of the EGP played an important role in the development of the country: its location in the center of Europe, surrounded by economically highly developed states, at the intersection of major transport routes, and its coastal location.
Within its modern borders, Germany was formed by the unification in October 1990 of two states - the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic - the Federal Republic of Germany included 5 states of the German Democratic Republic and East Berlin. As a result, the country's territory grew by 43%, and the population by 27%.
Germany is a parliamentary republic. According to the territorial-political structure - a federation consisting of 16 lands.
Executive power in the country belongs to the federal government, the president performs mainly representative functions.
Natural CONDITIONS and resources
The natural conditions of the country are varied. The surface rises mainly from north to south. Based on the nature of the relief, there are 4 main regions: the North German Lowland, the Middle German Mountains (Black Forest, Swabian Alb, Franconian Alb, Rhine Slate Mountains). Bavarian plateau and Alps. The relief of the country was influenced by glaciations and marine transgressions.
Among the countries of foreign Europe, Germany stands out for its coal reserves (1st place) - mainly in the Ruhr, Saar, and Aachen basins.
Quite large deposits of natural gas are located in the north of Germany.
There are iron ore reserves, but their quality is low. In the north of the German Lowland there are significant deposits of rock salt. There are reserves of potassium and magnesium salts.
The climatic conditions of the country - a transitional climate from maritime to continental - are favorable for living and farming.
The rivers Rhine, Ems, Weser, Elbe, and Danube are of great economic importance.
About 30% of the territory is covered with forests, but they are secondary; primary forests have practically not survived in the country.
Population
In terms of population, Germany ranks first in Western Europe. The country is characterized by a decrease in the birth rate and natural population growth (especially in the eastern lands). The birth and death rates are equal (about 1%), but the population is growing due to the influx of immigrants from Southern Europe and Asia.
The average density is 227 people/km 2 .
The vast majority of residents are Germans; immigrants by the time of the country's reunification numbered more than 5 million people, their number is increasing.
The predominant religion is Christianity (Catholicism and Protestantism); Among other religions, Islam is widespread.
Urbanization level - 87%.
Farm
Germany is one of the most developed countries in the world. In terms of GDP and industrial production, it is second only to the United States and Japan.
The role of Germany in the MGRT is determined by its industry, which specializes in the production of high-quality products.
The sectoral and territorial structure of the German economy was strongly influenced by the forty years of separate development of the Federal Republic of Germany and the GDR. Territorial disproportions in the country are very large: the eastern lands in 1994 provided about 4% of industrial output, although about 20% of the population of Germany lives there.
In general, the share of manufacturing industries in the industrial structure is very high (more than 90%), the share of extractive industries is declining, and the share of knowledge-intensive industries is growing.
Germany's energy sector provides more than 1/2 of its needs through imports (oil, gas, coal). The main role in the fuel base is played by oil and gas, and the share of coal is about 30%. Electricity generation structure: 64% - at thermal power plants, 4% - at hydroelectric power plants, 32% - at nuclear power plants. Coal-fired thermal power plants operate in the Ruhr and Saar basins, in port cities; natural gas power plants operate in northern Germany; fuel oil power plants operate in oil refining centers; other thermal power plants operate on mixed fuel. Nuclear power plants are built outside coal basins. Hydroelectric power stations operate mainly in the south of the country (on mountain rivers).
Ferrous metallurgy is one of the most important branches of specialization in Germany, but is currently in crisis. The main factories are concentrated in the Ruhr and the Lower Rhine; there are also in the Saarland and in the eastern states of Germany. Conversion and rolling enterprises are located throughout the country.
Non-ferrous metallurgy - works mainly on imported and recycled raw materials. In terms of aluminum smelting, Germany is second only to Norway in foreign Europe. The main factories are in North Rhine-Westphalia, Hamburg and Bavaria.
Mechanical engineering and metalworking is the branch of specialization of Germany in the MGRT; it accounts for up to 1/2 of industrial production and exports. The largest centers: Munich, Nuremberg, Mannheim, Berlin, Leipzig, Hamburg. Bavaria is a leader in the electrical engineering industry. The automotive industry, marine shipbuilding, optical-mechanical, and aerospace industries are highly developed.
The chemical industry - especially developed in the western lands, in the east - found itself in a state of crisis.
Agriculture - uses about 50% of the territory; The industry's contribution to the country's GDP is 1%, more than 60% of all production comes from livestock farming, where cattle breeding and pig breeding are highlighted. The main grain crops are wheat, rye, oats, and barley. Germany is completely self-sufficient in grain. Potatoes and beets are also grown; along the valleys of the Rhine and its tributaries - viticulture, gardening, tobacco growing.
Transport. In terms of the density of transport routes, Germany ranks among the first in the world; The basis of the transport network is railways. In the total cargo turnover, the main role belongs to road transport (60%), then railway (20%), inland waterway (15%) and pipeline. External maritime transport and air transport are of great importance, playing a major role in the country’s external relations.
Foreign economic relations
In terms of total foreign trade, Germany ranks second in the world after the United States. The main trading partners of Germany are EU countries; recently the markets of Eastern Europe and Russia have been developed.
In exports, the share of industrial products exceeds 90%; in imports, finished products also predominate, but raw materials and fuel have a large share.
The history of Germany is doubly interesting because this state played a huge role in the life of all of Europe. Many decisions of German rulers still influence the lives of Europeans.
Antiquity and the era of barbarian kingdoms
People have lived on the territory of modern Germany since ancient times. The barbarian tribes that gave rise to modern Germans and Scandinavians came here in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e.
The warlike Germans quickly subjugated neighboring tribes. If initially they lived in the Baltic region, then by the beginning of our era the Germans moved to Central and Southern Europe. However, their further advance was stopped at the border of the Roman Empire. Both sides were aggressive towards each other, and skirmishes regularly occurred between Roman and German troops on the outskirts of the empire.
The official date of the beginning of German history is considered to be 9 AD. e., when the German prince Armirius defeated three Roman legions at once in a battle in the Teutoburg Forest. Due to the success of Armirius, the Romans had to abandon their continued conquest of Central and Northern Europe. Since the 2nd century, German raids on the Roman Empire became increasingly frequent and successful. Two centuries later, after the start of the Great Migration, the Germans began a fierce struggle for Roman territories. At the end of the 5th century, Rome fell and barbarian kingdoms began to emerge on the territory of the former empire:
- Burgundy;
- Svevskoe;
- Lombard;
- Ostrogothic;
- Anglo-Saxon;
- Kingdom of the Vandals and Alans;
- Visigothic;
- and played a key role in the region - Frankish.
At the end of the 5th century, the Franks inhabited the north of modern Germany, but, conquering their neighbors, they constantly expanded their possessions. By the beginning of the 9th century, under Charlemagne, the Frankish kingdom reached the peak of its power. Its territory extended from the North Sea to the central part of the Apennine Peninsula and from the Carpathians to the Pyrenees. At the same time, modern Germany remained the core of the kingdom. However, the descendants of Charlemagne were unable to preserve their inheritance, and the Frankish state began to disintegrate. In 843, the kingdom of the Franks was divided into three parts among the grandchildren of Charles:
- Lothair I received the Middle Kingdom (the historical core of the Frankish state and Northern Italy), which was considered the most desirable piece. However, this kingdom did not last long and after the death of Lothair it was divided into parts;
- The West Frankish kingdom, on the territory of which France later arose, went to Charles II the Bald;
- Ludwig I of Germany became the master of the East Frankish Kingdom, which later became a new strong state - Germany.
The Holy Roman Empire and the Age of Fragmentation
The first years of the empire
In 936, Otto I became king of East Frankia. The new king sincerely believed in his exclusivity and in the fact that God had entrusted him with a special mission. Indeed, Otto I, later, like his famous ancestor, Emperor Charles, nicknamed the Great, managed to seriously influence the entire subsequent history of Europe. A brilliant commander and staunch defender of Christian values, after the conquest of Northern Italy in 962 he was crowned by the Pope himself, becoming the first Holy Roman Emperor and the spiritual heir of the Roman rulers.
But most empires sooner or later begin to experience a crisis. The German emperors constantly had to contend with the growing appetites of the bishops and local nobility. Under Frederick I Barbarossa of Hohenstaufen, who ruled in the 12th century, the first signs of feudal fragmentation arose in the Holy Roman Empire. During the life of Frederick I and his son, Henry VI, the country still remained united and even expanded its borders. Two talented emperors managed to restrain those centrifugal forces that threatened to split the empire. The Hohenstaufens created a developed bureaucratic system and did a lot to strengthen the vertical of power.
Feudal fragmentation
After the death of Henry VI in 1197, an internecine war for power and an uprising of Italians who did not want to submit to the Hohenstaufens began in the empire. Only in 1220 did Henry VI's son, Frederick II, become emperor. He managed to subjugate Italy again and carried out a successful crusade, as a result of which he was proclaimed king of Palestine. However, due to the constant need to attend to Italian affairs, Frederick II was unable to keep an eye on the German bishops and nobles. In order not to once again conflict with his subjects, the emperor was forced to recognize their sovereign rights within the boundaries of the possessions of each of the lords. These concessions led to the formation of many independent principalities on the territory of the empire, many of which existed until the end of the 19th century.
The Hohenstaufen dynasty came to an end after the death of Frederick II. The era of interregnum lasted for about 20 years, during which chaos reigned in the empire and unions of strong independent cities began to emerge. In 1273, a new dynasty came to the imperial throne - the Habsburgs. The first representatives of this dynasty no longer had the same influence as the Hohenstaufens. They depended on the decisions of the Reichstag, the Electors (local princes who had the right to choose the emperor) and other noble German families, for example, the Luxemburgs and Wittelsbachs.
The Empire entered a period of crisis. Italy left German control, and the Duchy of Burgundy became a vassal of France. However, despite the deepening internal political crisis, Germany continued to be one of the strongest states in Europe.
The era of growth began under Emperor Charles IV (1346-1378), who belonged to the Luxembourg dynasty. The Emperor issued the Golden Bull, which legislated the rights of the electors. They could:
- choose the emperor;
- wage war among themselves within the empire (but not against the emperor);
- mint your own coin.
On the one hand, the document strengthened the position of regional rulers, but on the other, it excluded the intervention of the Pope in internal affairs. In fact, the Holy Roman Empire became a union of independent principalities. At the same time, the emperors actively fought against the emergence of coalitions of cities that could resist the highest power.
From the second quarter of the 15th century, the imperial throne began to be permanently occupied by representatives of the Habsburg dynasty. The Habsburgs of this era had little influence on politics, while individual principalities created their own financial, judicial and tax systems, as well as full-fledged armies. At the end of the 15th century, thanks to a series of dynastic marriages, the core of the Habsburg family domains took shape. This area included Hungary, the Czech Republic and Austria, the latter being the center of the entire empire. Very soon the Habsburgs began to understand that it was no longer possible to pursue a unified policy throughout the entire empire, so the emperors began to care, first of all, about their possessions, and secondarily about the welfare of all of Germany. During the same period, the official name of the state began to sound like the “Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation.”
Peasants' War and Reformation
The reason for the beginning of the reformation movement in Germany was the famous “95 Theses” (1517) of Martin Luther, where he condemned the practice of selling indulgences and abuses of the Catholic clergy. Luther's ideas resonated with all segments of the population, since many were dissatisfied with the existing state of affairs:
- the enormous wealth accumulated in monasteries and churches;
- serfdom;
- the high cost of religious rituals;
- condemnation of banking and trading by the church.
By the 16th century, the inhabitants of Germany needed a new bourgeois ideology and wanted to abandon the old feudal order imposed by the Catholic Church. Humanism also played a major role in the reform movement. The Reformation was supported by the best minds of the time - Erasmus of Rotterdam, Ulrich von Hutten, Philip Melanchthon and others.
The ideas of Luther and his associates were popular among wealthy people. Among the peasants, their own reformers appeared, who placed the main emphasis not on dogmatic subtleties, but on the need for social reforms. Under the slogans of liberating peasants from serfdom and establishing universal equality, the Peasants' War (1524-26) began. However, due to the lack of military training, supplies, weapons and the disorganization of actions, the peasants were defeated.
Emperor Charles V was an opponent of the Reformation. He sought to return his subjects to the rule of the Pope. However, many counties and cities were ready to oppose the king and the Catholic faith. They even turned to Germany's longtime rival, France, for support and, together with the French king, began a war against their emperor.
The result of the Reformation was the signing of the Peace of Augsburg (1555), according to which freedom of religion was proclaimed in the empire.
The Thirty Years' War (1618-48) and its consequences
For about 50 years after the signing of the Peace of Augsburg, Catholics and Protestants managed to coexist peacefully, but at the beginning of the 17th century, the established balance was disrupted. In the Protestant Czech Republic, an uprising began against the staunch Catholic Ferdinand of Styria, who was first to become the Czech king, and then the ruler of the entire empire.
The regional religious and political conflict very quickly grew into a pan-European war of progressive nation states against the hegemony of the conservative Habsburgs. The fight against the Habsburgs united France, Denmark, the Czech Republic, a number of German principalities, Russia, England, Sweden and many others. On the side of the Austrian emperors were the powers where the positions of the Catholic clergy were strong - Poland, Spain and Portugal, as well as Bavaria, Saxony and Prussia.
The Thirty Years' War went on with varying degrees of success. Many historians consider it the first real world war, since all European countries and many colonies were drawn into it. 5 million people died during the war. Many died from typhoid, plague and dysentery, which were raging in Europe at that time. The war ended with the Peace of Westphalia, according to which:
- Many regions broke away from the Holy Roman Empire;
- Protestants received equal rights with Catholics;
- the lands of the church were secularized;
- the financial, tax and judicial systems of the empire were restructured;
- The rights of the Reichstag and German princes were significantly expanded. The latter even gained the opportunity to conclude international treaties with other powers.
After the defeat of the Holy Roman Empire, France began to play a major role in the life of Europe. But the new hegemon also soon fell during the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714). The Habsburgs played a key role in the victory of the anti-French forces. Thanks to this, the Austrian rulers again began to enjoy greater authority and influence. The 18th century became a new golden age for the Habsburgs. Emperors waged successful wars, patronized the sciences and arts, annexed new territories to their possessions, and served as international arbiters. But despite this temporary rise, the empire slowly collapsed.
Rise of Prussia
In 1701, the Kingdom of Prussia arose on the territory of the Holy Roman Empire with its capital in Berlin. The first Prussian kings managed to accumulate considerable wealth and create a powerful army, which in the 18th century was considered the strongest in Europe. Very quickly the young kingdom became a full-fledged rival of Austria. The Prussian king Frederick II in 1740-45 carried out a number of successful military operations against the Austrian Archduchess Maria Theresa. Prussian rulers began to declare themselves defenders of German freedoms from the encroachments of the despotic Habsburgs, who by that time united about 350 different states and principalities under their rule.
Many representatives of the German nobility, who were burdened by outdated orders, were convinced of the need to get rid of the Habsburgs. The empire experienced its final collapse during the Napoleonic Wars. The French army occupied the heart of the empire - the city of Vienna. Many German princes not only did not defend their ruler, but also supported Napoleon Bonaparte. In 1805, Emperor Francis II was forced to agree to the terms of the Peace of Presburg, which gave France extensive possessions in Italy, Austria and Germany, and Bavaria and Württemberg became sovereign kingdoms. A year later, the pro-French Union of the Rhine arose on the territory of the empire, uniting 39 independent states and several free cities. Soon, members of the union announced their withdrawal from the empire. Francis II had no choice but to agree with the decision of his subjects and relinquish the title of emperor. Thus ended the history of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation.
Despite the fact that Prussia also suffered setbacks during the Napoleonic Wars, the kingdom continued to strengthen and grow. At the beginning of the 19th century, a number of reforms were carried out here, as a result of which serfdom was eliminated, Prussian industry began to develop, and the management system was improved. The Prussian kings never joined the Confederation of the Rhine and continued to pursue an independent policy.
Formation of a unified German state
The collapse of the empire, however, did not mean a complete break in relations between its former parts. The rivalry between Prussia and Austria did not prevent them from joining forces to revive a single state. After Napoleon's defeat at Leipzig in 1813, the Confederation of the Rhine collapsed. Its members began to join the confederation of German states, which functioned until 1866 under the auspices of Austria.
During the revolution of 1848-49, an attempt was made to create a unified power. However, neither the Austrian nor the Prussian emperors were ready to cooperate with the revolutionaries. Meanwhile, relations between the two largest states of the confederation became increasingly strained. In 1866, the Austro-Prussian War began, from which Prussia emerged victorious. After the end of the war, the North German Confederation emerged, the center of which was Berlin. But the real triumph of Prussia was the Franco-Prussian War, which ended in 1871. As a result of the war, a number of large southern principalities were forced to join the North German Confederation. After this, the Prussian King William I and Minister-President Otto von Bismarck were able to solemnly announce the revival of the German Empire.
Germany during the era of two World Wars
First World War (1914-18)
The German emperors were the most powerful rulers in Europe. But in 1888, Wilhelm II, a staunch supporter of an aggressive foreign policy and German rule over all of Europe, ascended the throne. The new emperor removed Chancellor Bismarck from his post and very soon turned the English and Russian crowns against himself. In 1914, the First World War began. Germany and its allies made great successes on the Russian front, but suffered defeat on the western front. Despite a powerful economy and Russia's withdrawal from the war, Germany could no longer resist England and France. In November 1918, a revolution began in Germany. The population could no longer endure the hardships of the war and demanded the resignation of the emperor. William II was forced to abandon the throne and flee to the Netherlands.
Weimar Republic
The First World War ended with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles (1919), under which Germany lost a huge part of its territories, was transformed into the Weimar Republic and was forced to pay indemnities.
Back in the fall of 1918, hyperinflation broke out in Germany, almost completely depreciating the national currency. The terms of the Treaty of Versailles made the situation even more difficult. Although the Weimar Republic was nominally considered a democratic state, radical parties, both right and left, rapidly increased their influence in Germany. The centrist democratic parties had virtually no weight, and the poorer the population became, the fewer supporters the Democrats had. Governments constantly replaced each other, chaos and poverty reigned in the country. The global economic crisis that began in the United States in the late 1920s finally undermined people's trust in power.
The Germans dreamed of the revival of the former empire and a “strong hand.” The NSDAP party, led by former corporal Adolf Hitler, began to enjoy the greatest sympathy among the population at this time. In 1932, Hitler's party received a majority of votes in parliamentary elections. Not only workers, but many large industrialists, as well as the army elite, are beginning to provide support for the NSDAP. In 1933, Hitler becomes Reich Chancellor. He immediately introduces strict censorship of the press, outlaws the Communist Party, sets a course for the militarization of all life and begins to create concentration camps for his political opponents.
In addition, Hitler began strengthening the federal ruling apparatus. Germany became a unitary state, and the rights of individual states were eliminated.
World War II (1939-45)
In the fall of 1939, World War II began. In just two years, the German army managed to occupy almost all of Central and Eastern Europe. A policy of terror was carried out in the occupied territories, many nationalities were physically destroyed, and representatives of the rest of the population were used as cheap labor. But failure awaited Hitler on the territory of the USSR; already in 1941, the Barbarossa offensive plan was thwarted, and in the second half of 1943, German units rapidly retreated to the west. Germany's situation was aggravated by the fact that military factories lacked raw materials and labor. In May 1945, the Red Army and Allied troops occupied Berlin.
Post-war Germany
After the victory and the military tribunal in Nuremberg, the victorious countries began to formalize a new political system in Germany. This is how it came about:
- in the west - Germany with its capital in Bonn;
- in the east - the GDR with its capital in East Berlin.
Germany joined NATO and, in general, developed along the capitalist path. A strong economic base was quickly created here, and a number of social reforms of a democratic order were also carried out.
The GDR was part of the socialist camp. However, Soviet financial assistance also allowed eastern Germany to create a developed infrastructure and industry. In order to suppress anti-communist sentiments among East Germans, which, according to the Soviet leadership, were cultivated by the West, the Berlin Wall was built between the GDR and West Berlin.
In 1989, the Berlin Wall fell, and a year later the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic united.
