All objects are voluminous. To more accurately convey this volume, you need to be able to distinguish between the illuminated part, that is, the part of the object where the light falls, the object’s own shadow, that is, the darkened part, and the falling shadow, that is, the shadow that falls from the object itself, located on some or surfaces.
The lightest surface of an object is the one that is closest to the light, and the darkest is the opposite side. Between light and shadow there is penumbra.
We see an object because it is illuminated. But the light illuminates the object differently: somewhere it is lighter, somewhere it is darker. This degree of illumination of an object is called chiaroscuro. Chiaroscuro depends on the subject: it can be round, rectangular, etc. The volume of an object is given by the tone, which is applied to the object in the form of shading. And shading, in turn, also depends on the shape of the object: a round object is hatched in a circle, and a rectangular object is hatched at an angle. Rays of light on more convex and shiny surfaces seem to gather at one point, forming glare of light. They are especially noticeable on glass and polished surfaces. That is, highlights are light spots with clear boundaries. Highlight is the lightest spot on the surface of an object.
How to make tonal transitions in a color drawing
As already mentioned, to make an object three-dimensional, you need to make tonal transitions. To do this, paint, the color corresponding to the darkest place of the depicted object, is applied to the drawing starting from the very dark tone- it will be a shadow. Next, without allowing the paint to dry, the border of the shadow is blurred with water (by dipping the brush in clean water) - this will be partial shade. Then, in the same way (that is, by blurring the penumbra boundary with water), a light area of the object is obtained. Using this method, which artists call blurring, you can get an image of a more voluminous figure, and the transitions from light to shadow are very soft. This drawing was made using the wash method. The artist used only black paint.
Let's try, using this method, to draw a flower pot with flowers.
First we determine the height and width of the plant and pot. We notice how the height of the pot relates to the plant. Let's take a good look at the pot: what kind of bottom does it have, is it the same width at the top and bottom? Where does the shadow from the pot fall?
After drawing a pot with a flower along the outline with a pencil, we begin to paint it with watercolors. When working with paints, move gradually from shadow to penumbra and the part from which the light falls.
See also: Drawing from life
Have you ever felt like you could walk right into a beautiful landscape painting? Like a magician, the artist has transferred the third dimension onto a flat canvas, and you, the viewer, are drawn into the world created by paint.
Creating a believable landscape painting with depth is not really something magic trick, this is a technique. For over a century, skilled artists have used some of the following techniques to carefully arrange compelling landscape paintings. Learn how to draw the viewer into your landscapes with these tips.
1. Layers and overlay
The use of word and overlay is effective when there is a noticeable contrast in the shadow or texture of two overlapping objects. This creates additional contrast and helps separate objects from each other. In Edgar Payne's magnificent painting below, the small boats in the foreground layer and partially overlap the larger ones. This creates a feeling of depth.
2. S-curve and winding path
A winding river or path that winds its way in an S shape through a painting can be used as a way to control the viewer's gaze. Charles Warren Eaton's tone painting, Winter's Solitude is an example of this popular method.
3. Use diagonals
Lowell artist Birge Harrison makes effective use of diagonals in Moonrise on the Shore. Smoothly rolling waves move away from us at an angle, creating a feeling of depth and distance.
4. Aerial perspective
A mountain range in the distance usually appears lighter, foggier, and bluer as it gets further away. This is an optical effect that the atmosphere creates when you look at objects at a great distance. Use temperature changes in color to create an aerial perspective. This is a generalization, but warm colors are more eye-catching.
5. Interest in the foreground
When painting objects at medium to long distances, they can often appear flat. Add interesting subject to the foreground to enhance the sense of depth. This draws the viewer's eye toward the scene, from the foreground to the subject in the distance. Use less details and textures in the background. Famous artist, teacher and author John F. Carlson demonstrates this technique in the following painting.
6. Change your size
In this painting, The Road to Sluys, Charles Warren Eaton effectively uses the technique of resizing. Please note that although in real life we know that these trees are the same size; Eaton masterfully painted them in descending order. In other words, trees get smaller as you move away. This created a wonderful illusion of depth.
In order to learn how to correctly depict objects from life on a plane, you need to have an idea of their shape, volume and design. This information will help in the future to solve educational problems when working on a drawing, and will allow you to better understand and understand the structure of object forms when depicting. Otherwise, students may proceed to mechanical and thoughtless copying of natural objects.The main task when learning to draw is to learn to correctly see the three-dimensional shape of an object and be able to logically and consistently depict it on the plane of a sheet of paper. To do this, let’s look at the structure of objects in more detail.
In physical nature, it is impossible to imagine any body having an abstract form, such as emptiness.
Without being distracted by objects of this kind, let us move on to real objects that surround us everywhere, including the forms of living nature.
The shape of an object should be understood as the geometric essence of the surface of the object, characterizing it appearance. Every item or object in nature, from microparticles to giant cosmic bodies, has a certain shape, and the shape of the human body is no exception. Consequently, any object is a form, and form implies volume.
These two concepts - shape and volume - are inextricably interconnected, form a single whole and do not exist separately in nature. For example, let's take a flat object - a sheet of paper, the appearance of which is characterized by flat, rectangular or steep shapes. Its volume will be determined by the thickness of the section, no matter how thin it is. Of course, this example in relation to the considered specific topic not entirely successful. It would be better if the sheet of paper was crumpled or given a different three-dimensional shape. In this case, the object would look more expressive. Let us take a book, the external outlines of which, upon initial examination, have the same shape as a sheet of paper. However, the thickness of the book, together with the total area, creates its volume, making this example more clear.
The volume of an object is a three-dimensional quantity that is limited in space by surfaces of various shapes (any objects have height, width and length, even in their relative dimensions).
The shape of any object is fundamentally understood or considered as its geometric essence, its appearance or external outlines. The famous artist and teacher D.N. Kardovsky believed that form is a mass that has one or another character, like geometric bodies such as a cube, ball, cylinder, etc. This equally applies to living forms, which, despite all their complexity, have in the basis (scheme) there is a hidden geometric essence. So, for example, the shape of a person’s torso can be represented in the form of several geometric shapes: a cylinder, a parallelepiped, or a flattened prism that is closer to the shape of the torso (Fig. 1). However, these geometric shapes do not have clear outlines in the human torso; there are depressions, protrusions and other deviations that prevent inexperienced draftsmen from seeing these geometric bodies in living form. However, a careful analysis of the shape of the body reveals its geometric essence, which is close to the shape of a prism. By using these geometric shapes when constructing a human figure, specifying and generalizing the existing deviations, you can give the figure real outlines.
When comprehending the external outlines of objects, it is also necessary to comprehend the essence of their internal structure, the design of the form and the connection of the individual elements that make up this or that form. The design of an object, as a rule, determines the nature of its form. In the educational drawing, the concept of form design acquires special meaning from the point of view of its spatial organization, geometric structure, external plastic structure, material and its functional purpose. This allows students to approach their drawing more consciously.
When you carefully analyze the shapes of objects, with all their apparent complexity, you can always see in them a geometric constructive basis or a combination of several such foundations that form this form. For example, let's take a jug, based on which we can distinguish several geometric bodies of different shapes in the following combination: neck - cylinder, body - ball, base - cone. The structural shape of a two-story house is ~~ rectangular, its roof is a triangular prism.
The geometric basis of the design of simple objects is obvious; it is more difficult to discern it in living forms. Figure 2 clearly shows images of animal skulls, whose complex shapes also have a hidden geometric basis, which greatly simplifies the understanding of the structural and constructive essence of these objects. The methods for constructing its shape on a plane largely depend on the structure of an object. Therefore, when analyzing the shape of an object, no matter how complex it may be at first glance, it is first of all necessary to penetrate into the essence of its internal structure, without being distracted by small details that interfere with understanding the geometric basis of its design. This will allow students to gain more complete information about the subject and consciously complete the drawing. Only after this can you begin to solve visual problems and draw freely and confidently both from nature and from your imagination, which is extremely important for professional creative activity.
To better understand the design of objects and acquire the skills to correctly depict their shape, it is also necessary to recall the knowledge in geometry acquired at school, such as the concepts of points, lines and three-dimensional forms.
How to learn to lay out a stroke according to the shape of an object - we will improve our pencil skills and learn to create a drawing geometric shapes, creating their volume. We have a cube, a ball, a cone and a cylinder in our arsenal.
Our work will be divided into two parts. First part - we draw according to submission. Perhaps you have layouts of these figures, if not, then you can look at the page on how to make a layout of geometric figures and, in fact, make them, but we will start with something else. We'll start by understanding, analyzing the form first without layouts. You can first create them and sometimes look at them when drawing, but the main thing now is to learn to analyze, to think logically, all your work now is to think, without nature, to learn to convey the shape of these basic figures. Initially, the work takes place in the head, and not in front of the eyes. Right?
The second part - we will draw from life, but just like in the first case, we do not cling too much to nature, but first of all we think and analyze ourselves, and now we test ourselves with what nature shows us.
So, first part. You can draw on A3 format. We take whatman paper, a pencil and draw a figure; it’s also a good idea to use knowledge of perspective when constructing it. And then you begin to “lay” the stroke on the shape, sculpting the volume of the figure with the help of your mind and a pencil.
We already know that chiaroscuro is distributed across the shape of an object, creating tonal gradations, or zones. For now, let's take the three main ones - light, penumbra and shadow. We limit ourselves to only figures, without using all the space.
Let's draw a cube. Avoiding mistakes. In the picture on the left I have a strong perspective, too much, don’t do that. Here it is enough to convey it quite a bit, slightly distorting the shape. Look at the picture on the right. Do you see the difference between the front wall and the back? That's enough. We use sizes that are not so large, so that we transform small forms into architecture.
Let's talk about light transmission. Light, shadow and penumbra are shown.
But don’t forget about the golden rule - as light moves away according to the shape of an object, it darkens, while the shadow brightens. Look: the light, moving into perspective, slightly loses its brightness, add a little shading there. And now penumbra and shadow, the same picture, but in reverse order. As the shadow moves away, it weakens and brightens slightly. But all the same, the overall tone of the shadow will never be lighter than the overall tone of the light, and the penumbra also does not break out of its tonal boundaries. Everything is in its place.
Let’s also look at how we carried out the training from our first lesson, see the basics of drawing, we don’t forget about that even now. We highlight the corners and edges closest to us and place emphasis on them. The near edge and corners are accentuated, which is what takes the main attention, everything else smoothly goes into space. But here this space does not need to be transferred much, since our distances are, in principle, small.
Note: to determine the overall tone, squint your eyes a little. The sharpness will decrease and you will be able to see everything in general. And don’t look at your work head-on; move it away from you more often, diffuse your vision, and don’t get caught up in the details.
And then the rest of the figures. These figures, in general, are quite streamlined and rounded, so we notice the following:
Let's say the first ball in the row is. The emphasis on it here is the shadow and it will be strongest in the place where the ball is closest to us. I don’t have accents at the edges, since there the shape goes into space - take this point into account when drawing a streamlined shape.
The same is true with a cylinder and a cone. Where the form begins to wrap up and goes into space, there is no need to place emphasis. But where the shape needs to be emphasized is where the shape breaks and where it will be closest to our eyes.
Pay attention to the cone - its lower part is closer to us than the top. This means that the lower part of it will be transmitted stronger, and rising to the top weaker - look at the shadow, at the bottom it is stronger, while rising upward it loses its activity. Don't make it the same tone over the entire height. These quantities here are not huge, but they still exist, otherwise the conditional space cannot be correctly conveyed.
I draw your attention to the shading. This is something that is a 100% stroke that fits the form. Despite the fact that it is somewhat monotonous and boring, it is very useful in terms of learning. It teaches discipline, concentration, how to make straight lines and simply clean execution. I recommend doing this work using this particular stroke, just try to “sculpt” the shape of a geometric figure, feel with your hands and eyes its entire volume and how its shape “lives” in space. It’s written strangely, but I try to convey to you as vividly as possible the beauty of this exercise. And we’ll talk about the strokes that should fit the shape of the object and which ones they are not.
And don't worry if things don't work out. No one is immune from mistakes, and there can be many of them, and nothing in the world is perfect. But each of us has the opportunity to try again in order to do even better.
How to draw geometric shapes
How to draw geometric shapes - now let's try to draw geometric shapes with surroundings. Let's envelop them in air and draw them in space. Let's take the main ones:
Let the cylinder go first. We place the cylinder on the object plane - table, set the lighting so that the shadow from the figure falls beautifully on the object plane, is neither very stretched nor small - it is harmonious and emphasizes the volume of the figure.
Stretch the paper over the tablet to create a clean design. Take a tablet size 30-40, it’s quite enough for this kind of work.
Now we need to arrange our cylinder in the plane of the sheet; find its harmonious place in the space of the sheet, taking into account the shadows as well. Use your eye to find proportions, back it up with sensations linear perspective.
Be sure to convey the object plane. Our figure does not “float” in space, it is on the object plane!
When constructing a figure, be sure to show the invisible edges, show how you build the construction lines. You need this more than the viewer. Place accents where necessary, show the intersection of planes. Don't forget about perspective. If you noticed, the lower plane of the cylinder is visible to us more than the upper one, this is correct, since the horizon line (at least for me, it may be different for you) gives such an overview.
Look at how the shadow is constructed - it can be conveyed correctly using construction lines. Figuratively: rays come from the light source, which are divided into two types, one illuminates the figure, stops at it, therefore there will be no light beyond the figure. And the rays of light that do not fall on the figure go further, illuminating everything in their path. And we can show you this border. And one more thing: the shadow, moving away from the figure, will tend to increase slightly; this resembles reverse perspective. Do you understand why? If you direct the rays in the opposite direction, then the shadow construction lines will converge in one point to point, from which the light comes.
This is roughly what you should get. Further, in principle, we no longer need nature, since everything can be analyzed independently. Turn on analytical thinking and reason logically. But still, let's look further:
The figure shows that the light falls from the side and from above. This means that the upper plane of the cylinder will be illuminated most of all, and the light will also fall on the object plane, since it, like the plane of the cylinder, is horizontal. Vertical planes - the wall and the break of the object plane, as well as the volume of the cylinder itself will receive less illumination, since they do not receive the incident main light.
Next: we don’t make the object plane black; the angle of the object plane becomes in this case There is enough light so that the shadow is not the most active here. But it is still necessary to highlight its object plane. This is achieved by highlighting the angle of the object plane.
Next: our subject plane receives the main light, but we need to show that it is horizontal. And we know that as the light moves away, it goes out and weakens. The farther the object plane goes from us, the weaker its light will be - we lay out the stroke in this way.
Now we need to deal with that part of the cylinder that will be in the shadow. Our cylinder is located vertically to the object plane, which means the main light will fall on its horizontal upper plane. Everything else is in shadow, with the exception of the area where the light glides across the form, since the light falls not exactly from above, but slightly from the side; this area is highlighted as the lightest on its vertical plane. The general shadow of the cylinder is more active than the wall, since the cylinder has an active shadow of its own and is closer to us, even though the wall is also located vertically.
The wall will be darker than the object plane, because it is vertical, which means there will be less light here, and because it will be farthest away, it will be in the background. Let's lay out the stroke like this.
The falling shadow of the figure will be the most active, but it also lies on the object plane, and therefore, as it moves away from it, it will become slightly weaker.
Well, it remains to place accents where necessary - the breaks in the forms that will be located closer to us will be accentuated.
If at first the hand does not obey, it is difficult to hold the pencil and it is difficult to place a stroke on the form, and it is difficult to clearly define the shape itself with a stroke, then there is an opportunity to work as shown in the figure on the left.
Lightly outline the kinks of the shape. That is: let’s say you know how light is distributed according to the shape of an object. You know that there are five of these zones: highlight, light, penumbra, shadow and reflex. This is all accurate, but conditional. To better convey the volume of a figure, you can outline as many breaks as you like, and the more there are, the softer the volume of the figure will be shown. Visually divide the figure into these zones and apply a regular straight stroke, but in such a way as to sculpt the volume, use the frequency of the stitch-stroke or the pressure of the pencil.
Here I ask you not to confuse two concepts: how the light is distributed over the shape of the object and how the stroke is laid out over the shape of the object. In the first case, we have 5 zones, in the second, we can outline as many zones and shape breaks as you need. But don’t scribble, all auxiliary lines should be inconspicuous.
Note: If you may have noticed by looking at this drawing, you will see that on the more illuminated side of the cone, the wall in the background is darker, and on the other, less illuminated side of the cone, the wall is lighter.
The fact is that the wall is the same in both places, but that’s how our eyes see it. For a keen sense of reality, for the best accent of light and shadow, for the harmonious perception of the drawing by our eyes, and in the end, let’s make our eyes pleasant! Let him see in the drawing what he sees in nature. This is just a slight nuance that will only enrich our drawing and can be unobtrusively conveyed.
Addition: see how the shadow of the cone is constructed.
Next, let's draw a ball. You can see the formation on the left. Notice how the shadow of the figure is constructed. We have already dealt with the falling one, sort of: we determine it with the help of an eye and reinforce the perspective with knowledge. Do not forget that the shadow falls on the object plane - this must be conveyed and understood.
But what about your own shadow? It is interesting that if you draw lines from the point of illumination to the center of the ball through which the diameter passes, which forms the circle of the shadow, then this diameter will be perpendicular to the line drawn to the point of illumination. If you understand this, then how to lay out a stroke in the shape of a ball in order to show your own shadow is not at all difficult.
Now I was getting a little bored with drawing in one manner and wanted to experiment. Look at the work on the right. Do you think it was done with shading? It doesn't look like it. It is made with a tonal spot using pencils of varying degrees of softness. If you take pencils with a solid lead, without a wooden frame, and just draw the tone on the paper, rather than shading, then you will also get a drawing like this.
What else is wrong with us, besides execution technique? The light is there, the shadows too, which means everything is in order.
But still, let’s take a closer look. The brightest light will be on the illuminated side of the ball; on the plane it will not be so active and will weaken with distance from us. The darkest shadow will be falling; at the break of the object plane there will be a little more light, but nevertheless, we will emphasize this area.
Look at the ball's own shadow - I put emphasis on the area of it that will be closer to us, and as it wraps itself in shape, the shadow will lose activity. Remember: a ball is a streamlined shape.
The wall is in partial shade, and in the background, so let it remain there unobtrusively. The only thing is that it will “play” with the volume of the ball. From the light side the wall will appear somewhat darker, from the shadow side it will appear lighter. Let's please our eyes here too ;)
How to learn to lay out a stroke according to the shape of an object. Hatching
Here we gradually come to what we already talked about at the very beginning of this page. How a stroke fits the shape of an object and which stroke is not. The fact is that each draftsman, in the process of work or study, develops his own specific style of stroke. Of course, there are canons, different historical times have their own canons of drawing and stroke, but it is not at all necessary to adhere to them. Optional. I believe that if with the help of a stroke you can convey the volume of a figure and the space itself in a sheet, then it makes absolutely no difference what this stroke represents. The main thing is that everything is done correctly and beautifully. Simply put, don’t make straw, learn to draw beautifully. This also applies to the stroke. On this page we learned how to make a stroke, let's continue a little more.
For example, this is how I draw a cube that we still have not drawn.
1. Determine the place of the figure in the sheet
2. We place the figure on the object plane and find its structure and its shadow, not forgetting to take into account the perspective
3. Determine the place of light and shadow - add a light touch. This gives us the opportunity to immediately determine the distribution of light and shadow in our drawing, to separate them
If you look at the stroke that is used to complete the work, it is quite unusual, right? It’s better not to resort to such a touch in drawing lessons; don’t scare the teachers, they don’t have the same modern progressive views as you. But in their creative works You can use this touch, why not? After all, the drawing was made according to all laws. The space in the sheet is conveyed, the shape of the object is shown, and the basic tonal relationships in our drawing are conveyed. But to this we also added a touch that makes the work interesting and airy. Well, then again, let’s analyze the drawing and analyze:
Let's go over the basic tonal relationships, first through the shadows: the darkest shadow is the falling shadow, followed by the cube's own shadow. The fracture of the object plane takes third place; we highlight it, but do not blacken it, since there is enough light there. And the fourth is the wall, which also receives light; we can say that the wall is in partial shade, but farthest away. See how the penumbra of the wall plays with the shape of the cube: on the side of the illuminated part of the cube the wall is darker, on the side of the shadow it becomes lighter. These gradations may be very small, but they are present.
Next, we analyze the light: the lightest and most illuminated part will be the top plane of the cube, the second lightest is the object plane, which is horizontally in front of us and loses light as it goes into space.
We focus on the breaks in shapes. We highlight the closest faces of the cube and the corners; this will help to pull it out of the space in front.
And don’t forget - as the light moves away it darkens and goes out, the shadow moves away and loses its activity and becomes somewhat lighter, but we take into account the golden rule: the darkest half-tone in the light is lighter than the lightest half-tone in the shadow.
Lastly, if you decide to experiment with shading. Just as the tonality of light and shadow, which we convey in the space of the sheet, varies, so the stroke can change its shape - play with the size of the stroke. The wall is made with a stroke of a medium stitch, quite static. The cube is made with small and active strokes, giving the cube dynamics. And the object plane is made with long stitches, rather trivial and uninteresting. So, even a stroke helps to identify the main character in the picture - the cube, which is made with the most dynamic stroke, attracting attention, in my opinion. What do you think?
Try to do something of your own, experiment, then the simplest work will be done with pleasure, great attention and great interest. And when you are sitting, doing work, for example, trying to put an even stroke on a form, and even succeeding, and at the same time you begin to notice that your breath stops from concentrating your attention, and at these very moments you feel the whole limit of the drawing and get unspeakable pleasure.
Basic information about the design, graphics and accessories
Drawing is a type of graphics. An image made by hand, by eye, using graphic means: lines, strokes, spots - is called a drawing. Drawing is both an independent type of fine art and the basis for painting, sculpture, engraving, posters, arts and crafts and other arts. Not only in works of art, but also in the most different types In human activity, drawing plays an important role; examples include drawings in textbooks, various design elements of scientific papers, sketches of technical details, sketches of costumes and sketches of clothing parts, product processing units, and much more.
The scope of drawing is vast, but it is of exceptional importance as a means of cognition and study of reality. Both in oral and written speech of a person, and in drawings, the process of thinking and communication of the artist with the world is reflected.
Any object can be the object of an image, but people perceive the objective world around them differently. And although each of us has the opportunity to sense the diversity of the quality of objects with the help of vision, the visual perception of the artist is most acute. With the help of drawing, the artist learns about the outside world, comprehends the secrets of its depiction on a plane and in volume.
Here we will consider drawing as a type of graphics and as an independent phenomenon of art.
Graphics (from the Greek grapho - I write, I draw) is a type of fine art that includes drawing and a very wide and diverse range of printed materials. works of art. We see graphics everywhere. Illustrations in books, drawings in magazines and newspapers, design of packaging for various products, postal and banknotes, emblems, posters and much more - all these are the works of graphic artists. Compared to painting, graphics are more conventional and do not convey all the richness of color and shape of the surrounding objective world; the artist selects and highlights the most basic.
Graphics combine drawing as an independent area and printed artistic images: woodcut (woodcut), metal (etching), stone (lithography), linoleum (linocut), cardboard and other types based on the art of drawing, but having their own means artistic expression.
Unlike the works printed graphics, which can be replicated in many copies - prints, the drawing is unique. 
Drawings may vary in technique and nature of execution, purpose, genres and themes. An easel drawing has an independent meaning - it is a carefully crafted work made on an easel (an artist’s machine) on a separate sheet. These can be drawings of various genres: landscapes, portraits, still lifes, drawings for household and historical topics etc. Depending on the time of execution, drawings can be long-term or short-term. In contrast to lengthy drawings, in sketches and sketches the artist quickly records his impressions of what he sees. In preparatory drawings and sketches, artists, sculptors, and designers embody the initial ideas of their projects.
Means of artistic expression in graphics
Like any type of fine art, drawing has its own figurative language. Line, stroke, spot, tone, chiaroscuro are the means of artistic expressiveness of a drawing. Various combinations of these means allow you to create light-and-shadow and tonal effects.
Main means of expression drawing - line. Its role in the drawing is complex and responsible: it is inextricably linked with the essence of what is depicted and is the result artistic comprehension reality. The artist's line is different from the drawing line. It sometimes thickens, sometimes becomes thinner, sometimes strengthens, sometimes weakens, and can be rigid, angular, insecure and timid (Fig. 1.1). The line conveys not only the character of the depicted object, but also the emotional state of the artist himself.
The emotional palette of the line is varied. How plastic and expressive the line is in V. Mukhina’s sketch (Fig. 1.2) and how dynamic it is in L. Spazzapan’s drawing (Fig. 1.3).
A stroke is a short trace of a pen or pencil, the simplest element of drawing technique. A system of strokes conveys space, reveals the volumetric-plastic properties of objects, their texture, and creates expressive effects of dynamics, light and shadow.
The drawing amazes with the magic of space and light French artist J. Seurat (Fig. 1.4), depicting a singer on the stage. It is made with a pencil, but not with an ordinary pencil stroke, but with a soft, uniform shading, creating, as it were, blurry, unclear outlines of figures and objects.
If the contour of a linear drawing is filled from the inside with an even color, the result is a silhouette - a spot - a planar color image. A spot with apparent non-plasticity can reveal an infinite variety of states. Using a spot you can express not only the shape, but also the character of the model and the plot situation (Fig. 1.5). They masterfully use stains in the art of textiles, which always tend to be flat.
Ability to work with stains - important quality for craftsmen who create designs on fabric (Fig. 1.6).
The spot pattern may not be a silhouette. For the most part it is based on the use of gradations of tone, i.e. gradual transitions from dark to light. The drawing by N. Kupriyanov (Fig. 1.7) was made in black watercolor, but there is some poetry and mystery in this sketch.
Graphic materials, accessories and requirements for them
Many tools and materials are used for drawing. The most common of these is the graphite pencil. Already the ancient Romans knew a pencil, but only a silver or lead one. In the Middle Ages, tin and an alloy of tin and lead were added to it. However, such pencils could not become widespread. The revolution was made by the discovery of graphite in the second half of the 16th century. in England. But graphite pencils had drawbacks - they got dirty and did not stick well on paper. And only at the end of the 18th century. The French mechanic Gonte, having mixed graphite powder with clay in the right proportion, invented the pencil that we still use today.
Graphite pencils are available in various degrees of hardness. Domestic pencils have 13 degrees of hardness, the harder ones are designated by the letter T (from 1T to 7T), the softer ones by the letter M (from 1M to 5M); imported pencils - N and V, respectively.
Relatively soft pencils of the TM, M, 2M - 5M brands are most suitable for drawing. They can make lines of varying thickness and a range of tonal gradations from the lightest to almost black, which is achieved by shading.
Charcoal is also widely used in drawing, which is distinguished by its large expressive possibilities. It gives a deep velvety black color and a variety of tonal transitions. They perform quick sketches and long drawings. You can draw a thin line with charcoal and quickly cover a large area with tone. Charcoal drawings should be secured with a special fixative.
Charcoal goes well with other materials - sanguine, chalk, pastels, colored pencils and a special “Retouch” charcoal pencil.
Drawing with a pen develops the hand and eye well. Feathers are used for drawing with liquid dyes: ink, ink, stain, watercolor. The pen has been known for a long time as an artist's tool. In the old days, goose, swan, crow, peacock, reed and straw feathers were used. Currently, metal feathers of various shapes and sizes are common in artistic practice (Fig. 1.8). 
Working with a pen requires observation, attention, confidence and precision. The peculiarity of working with a pen is that corrections are almost impossible. By changing the pressure of the pen, you can achieve lines of varying thickness. Steel feathers give a clear and thin line, while goose and reed feathers give an expressive and lively line (Fig. 1.9).
A variety of graphic effects can be achieved with colored pencils. Blurring with water watercolor pencils, you can also get picturesque effects.
Graphic work is mainly performed on paper, the selection of which must be selective. There are different types of paper. For quick drawings with pencil or paint, thick white paper with a slightly rough surface - Whatman paper or half-Whatman paper - is better suited. For short-term drawings and sketches made with soft graphic materials (very soft pencils, coal, sanguine, etc.), they use paper of different quality: wallpaper, wrapping, newspaper, etc. Smooth, without roughness, thick white paper is suitable for working with a pen.
For educational drawings, use 1/2 or 1/4 standard sheet paper drawing paper. It is better to store sheets of drawing paper in a special folder rather than on a roll, since a curled sheet is difficult to attach to an easel or drawing board.
The set of drawing supplies also includes a folding knife or scalpel and a soft rubber band cut diagonally, since it is more convenient to eliminate unnecessary lines with a sharp end.
Knowledge art materials and the technique of working with them helps to realize creative ideas and make drawings more expressive.
Three-dimensionality. Form. Volume
The world around us is rich in a variety of forms. Everything we see around us has a form that in the best possible way characterizes any object (Fig. 1.11, a and b). When it is necessary to graphically represent an object on a plane, we focus our attention on the form. Any form that has already passed through our visual perception can be associated in consciousness with other similar forms, with which our imagination will create certain relationships and connections. For example, a spot of paint can be associated with a face, and in the outline of clouds you can see a lying dog, a running horse, and much more.
The expressiveness of the form of the depicted object is very important for the artist, because it determines the type of models he creates. On a flat sheet the artist creates an image in which the viewer sees volumes and space. For the painter to succeed, he must learn to perceive everything visible space three-dimensional: drawing an object from one side, as if to see it from all sides. The artist must consciously represent the structure of the object, the laws of its construction, and not “copy” the contours, light and dark spots without meaning.
Any form created by nature or man is based on geometric bodies, from which learning to draw begins.
The volume of an object is characterized by three parameters: length, width, height. The appearance of the object and the outline of its shape depend on their ratio.
In order to convey a three-dimensional form in a drawing, you need to use imagination and logic to imagine its internal structure, that is, to understand the design of the object.
A design is the structural basis of a form, its frame, which connects individual elements and parts mutually located in space into a single plastic volume.
In order to understand the structural features of the form and its design, the method of through drawing is used in the drawing (Fig. 1.12). 
Based on their shape, objects can be classified as simple or complex. Complex shapes are a combination of different surfaces (flat, convex and concave). An example would be the shape of a car.
Simple shapes of objects can be divided into faceted and round. The surfaces of faceted geometric bodies are formed by flat faces - these are cubes, prisms, pyramids. The surfaces of round geometric bodies are formed by the rotation of a flat contour around its axis - these are a ball, a cylinder, a cone. They are characterized by curved surfaces - spherical or cylindrical.
When starting to draw, you need to carefully examine the depicted object from all sides in order to get a clear idea of its volume. Next, to clarify the design of the object, make several sketches using the through-drawing method, in which outline the axes and characteristic lines of the sections.
Optical illusions. To correctly depict the shape of objects, it is necessary to become familiar with perception. Artists encounter a number of phenomena called optical illusions. Studying and taking them into account will help to avoid visual distortions of objects. Psychologists have noticed that our consciousness tends to group things into simple units. Points located at equal distances from each other and representing unrelated objects are organized in our minds into rows and columns (Fig. 1.13).
In Fig. 1.14, a - illusions that arise when comparing the lengths of segments. Optical illusions can also appear when comparing geometric shapes (Fig. 1.14, b). The same objects may appear larger when surrounded by small ones and small when surrounded by large ones. The perception of a geometric characteristic can be distorted if the sides of the rectangle are crossed by many rays emanating from the center (Fig. 1.14, c). These rays seem to transform the parallel straight lines of the sides of the rectangle into curved ones. A white square on a black background seems larger than a black one on white, although they are the same (Fig. 1.14, d). Optical illusions are the result of our own minds. For example, the so-called ambiguous drawings, which clearly demonstrate how the perception of one and the same object gives an alternating image and is read as a figure, then as a background: now we see two dark profiles on a white background, now a white vase on a dark one (Fig. 1.14, d).
Knowledge of the peculiarities of shape perception will help you create accurate and expressive drawings, interesting compositions. When artistic designing modern clothing, knowledge of the laws of visual perception and appearance optical illusions will help the costume designer to realize his idea in the most complete and interesting way, and the cutter to correct some of the shortcomings of the customer’s figure.
Chiaroscuro and its patterns.
The volumetric form is conveyed in the drawing not only with the help of constructive construction, but also with the help of chiaroscuro. Any three-dimensional object is limited by curved or flat surfaces, which, when illuminated, fall into different light conditions. Light, spreading across the form, depending on the nature of its surface, has various shades- from lightest to darkest.
The degree of surface illumination depends on the distance to the light source: the further the light source is from the surface, the weaker it is illuminated, and vice versa. The apparent lightness of the surface of an object also depends on the distance between the object and the viewer. When removed, light surfaces gradually darken, and darkened ones lighten.
The angle of incidence of light rays on the surface also plays a significant role in the degree of illumination of the surface. The most intensely illuminated surface will be the one on which the light rays fall at right angles, i.e. perpendicular. The smaller the angle of inclination of the light rays to the surface, the weaker it is illuminated.
The lightness of an object depends on the color and texture of its surface: glossy surface will reflect light more than matte and rough. Dark surfaces absorb more light rays and reflect less. On very dark or very light surfaces, the gradations of light are poorly distinguished, since our eye is not able to distinguish between too weak or too strong light stimulation.
As an example of the distribution of chiaroscuro on various surfaces depending on the angle of incidence, let us consider chiaroscuro on the simplest geometric bodies.
The shapes of various objects are based on the simplest geometric bodies. Knowing the laws of light and shadow distribution on spherical, cylindrical and flat surfaces, you can understand the light and shadow of any object with a complex shape.
In order to better imagine the nature of the distribution of light and shade on the surface of geometric bodies, imagine that they will be illuminated by strong lateral light with the shadow sides illuminated by reflected rays from a nearby white vertical plane (Fig. 1.15).
The part of the surface of the body that is hidden from the light source and is in the shadow is called its own shadow, and the illuminated part of the surface is called light. The degree of illumination of a curved surface is determined by the angle of incidence of the light rays: the most illuminated area will be the area on which they fall at a right angle. Where the rays only glide across the surface, penumbra is formed. As you approach the shadow line, the angle of incidence of the light rays decreases. On smooth shiny surfaces the light source is reflected and the brightest place is formed - glare. The illumination of a shadow by rays reflected from illuminated planes located nearby is called a reflex. The shadow cast by an object is a falling shadow.
For polyhedra, the most illuminated face will be the one on which the light rays fall at a large angle, and as the angle between the light rays and the face decreases, the degree of its illumination decreases. Each face of the polyhedron is visually perceived as unequally illuminated at all its points. A light surface bordering on a dark one will appear lighter, and a dark surface will appear darker.
On cylindrical, conical and spherical surfaces, the transition from light to shadow will occur gradually, without a sharp change in light-and-shadow ratios. Such surfaces are characterized by a smooth, saturated halftone transition from the lightest to the darkest spot.
Proportions 
Proportions are the dimensional relationships of parts of a form with each other, as well as between different forms.
The sense of proportion is one of the main things in the drawing process. Compliance with proportions means the ability to subordinate the sizes of all parts of the depicted object in relation to each other and to the whole.
For example, to draw a still life from several household objects, it is necessary to determine how they relate to each other in size: height, width, volume, weight. Having established the proportional relationships between objects, they move on to identifying the proportionality of the parts of the form of a single object. Thus, by establishing relationships between objects and between parts of the form of an individual object, we identify their proportional characteristics. Therefore, the basis of proportions is the method of comparison.
The proportionality of the parts of the form creates its beauty. When we admire the works of masters of the past, we are struck by their amazing harmony, which is largely determined by such an aesthetic quality as the proportionality of the whole and details.
Artists of different eras sought to understand the proportional patterns of objects in the surrounding world, and especially the human body. 
IN Ancient Egypt to depict the human body, a special canon was developed, according to which parts of the human body were measured with mathematical accuracy. The Egyptians based the division of the figure on 21 parts (Fig. 1.18), with 19 equal parts for the figure itself and 2 parts for the headdress (the crown of the pharaoh). Rules for the image were set standing man, walking, sitting, kneeling, etc. T9.K LS6 rules were developed for the depiction of a lotus flower, sacred animals and birds. When creating reliefs and paintings, the Egyptians used special grid-tables, which were applied to walls and stone slabs. The artist had to know the rules established by the canon and follow them using a grid table.
The ancient Greeks based their fine art on the image of a beautiful person. They argued that a strict pattern reigns in the world, and the essence of beauty lies in harmonious order, symmetry, harmonious unity of parts and the whole. These provisions formed the basis of the canons created by the Greeks. In 432 BC. e. The sculptor Polykleitos wrote an essay on the proportions of the human body, which was called “Canon”. To illustrate his theory, he created a statue of "Doriphoros", which means spearman. This statue of a young athlete served as a model for artists. Artists Ancient Greece discovered a system of proportions, which later became known as “ golden ratio" The essence of this proportion is that the sum of two quantities is related to the larger value, just as the larger value is related to the smaller one. An example of dividing segment AB according to the “golden section” principle is shown in Fig. 1.19 (AB: AC = AC: SV). Approximately in whole numbers, the "golden ratio" is expressed as 5:3; 8:5; 13:8; 21:13, etc.
Knowledge of the law of the “golden section” played a significant role in ancient architecture, painting and sculpture. If ancient artists intuitively followed the principle of the “golden ratio” in search of harmony, then it was theoretically described in the Renaissance. Leonardo da Vinci, based on the experience of the ancients, developed a system of proportions of the human body. Creating rules for depicting the human figure, he made a drawing diagram that clearly shows the proportional pattern of parts of the human body (Fig. 1.20).
Among the Renaissance masters who dealt with the theoretical foundations of drawing, a prominent place belongs to the German artist Albrecht Durer. Having written several books about human proportions, he sought to scientifically substantiate the topic, adding to the texts large number drawings, diagrams and drawings.
Problem perfect proportions worried artists in subsequent eras. In 1947, the French architect S. E. Le Corbusier developed the modulator - a system for dividing the human figure in accordance with the principle of the “golden section”. On this basis, a school of models for architectural planning and design was created. In this system, the human figure is divided into segments from the foot to the waist, from the waist to the back of the head, from the back of the head to the tips of the fingers of the raised hand (Fig. 1.21).
A developed sense of proportion largely determines success in drawing. Practice shows: the more accurately the proportions are found, the brighter and more expressive the drawing. The correct selection of proportional relationships has great value when designing a costume. Co-size and successful organization of the parts of the costume help to make the human figure attractive and hide some flaws. And not only in the field of clothing design, but also in any artistic and design activity, proportionation plays an important role.
IN visual arts, when drawing from life, the proportions of objects can be checked by sighting (Fig. 1.22). 
This is done like this: we press the pencil with the ring and middle fingers to the palm, and the thumb moves along the pencil and serves to mark the required dimensions on it. The pencil is held on a horizontally outstretched hand between the subject and the eye. It can tilt both to the right and to the left depending on the position of the object being measured, but in this case the pencil must be in a position strictly perpendicular to the main line of vision. Without these conditions, measurements will be erroneous.
Using the sighting method, you can determine how many times the width of an object fits into its height, clarify the degree of inclination of the shape axes, etc. However, the sighting method should not be abused, since it inhibits the development of the eye, which is trained through systematic exercises. Measurements by eye can be more accurate than measurements by sighting if the sense of proportion is developed.
Basics of Perspective
When learning to draw from life, as well as from memory and imagination, it is necessary to know the theoretical foundations of constructing realistic images. Looking at the world around us, a person cannot help but notice that objects, moving away, decrease in size.
The explanation for this lies in the properties of our vision. The objects we see are necessarily illuminated in one way or another, otherwise we would not see them. The rays reflected from illuminated objects are perceived by our eye and cause irritation of the nerve endings in its retina. This irritation in our consciousness is transformed into visual image. In Fig. Figure 1.23 shows a diagram of visual perception, which shows that, due to the optical properties of the eye, of two objects of equal size, the closer one is larger, and the more distant one is smaller. 
A classic example of a promising reduction in size is a road running into the distance with pillars running along it. Moving away, the road narrows, and the pillars become smaller until they converge somewhere on the horizon into one point (Fig. 1.24).
The horizon is not always visible - you won’t see it in the city or in the forest. In this case, it must be presented. Main feature The horizon line is that it always passes at eye level of the observer. You look at everything above the horizon line from below, and at everything below you look at it from above. All horizontal lines of objects standing above the horizon line slope down, and similar lines of an object standing below the horizon line slope upward towards this line. All these changes occur according to certain laws.
The study of the patterns of images on the plane of the visible world in accordance with the optical features and physiological properties of our vision is a science called perspective (from the Latin perspicio - I see clearly). The image itself, made in accordance with the provisions of this science, is also called perspective. The perspective method was developed during the Renaissance. One of the creators of the scientific theory of perspective was the early Renaissance architect Filippo Brunelleschi in collaboration with the mathematician Paolo Toscanelli. Then Italian and German artists Pierodella Francesca, Paolo Uccello, Leonardo da Vinci, Albrecht Durer and others developed previously discovered laws in their scientific works and works of art.
IN fine arts Three types of perspective can be distinguished: observational, linear and aerial. Observational perspective is a set of rules derived from the experience of direct observation. In this case, the artist, when conveying a full-scale image, is based not on precise geometric calculations, but on his own vision and analysis. Unlike observational perspective, linear perspective is a system of various methods geometric construction perspective images on a plane. Aerial perspective is a particular section of observational perspective and speaks of the change in color and clarity of the outline of objects as they move away from the viewer under the influence of the atmosphere. It is mainly used in painting.
Before you begin learning the basics of perspective, there are a few concepts you should familiarize yourself with. Everything that a person can cover with one glance, without moving or moving his eyes, is called the visual field. It is within a visual angle approaching 60°, but the clearest perception is within a visual angle of about 30°.
If we look at the same object, moving now to the right, now to the left, now crouching, now straightening up, it will appear to us differently each time. The position of the observer's eyes in relation to the observed object is called point of view.
When looking out the window from a room, we see a large space with houses, trees or other objects located at different distances. If we trace their outlines on glass with paint, we will get a contour image of objects located in space. In this case, the glass will be the picture plane. Looking at the full-scale setting, the painter seems to imagine an imaginary picture plane in front of him, on which objects are visible as they should be depicted on paper.
The horizontal plane of the ground, floor or table on which the depicted objects are located is usually called the object plane.
Points on the horizon at which parallel lines that go deep into the picture visually converge are called vanishing points.
For each group of parallel lines, no matter where they are in the picture and no matter what objects they belong to, there is only one vanishing point. Parallel lines, located at right angles to the horizon, go to one point, which is located opposite our eyes and is called the main point. In Fig. Figure 1.25 shows a spatial model for constructing a perspective image.
Lines perspective. Lines that are parallel to the picture plane in nature are called frontal. In the drawing they have the same directions as in nature, no matter how far away they are. All frontal lines, no matter what position they are in, do not have vanishing points.
The lines that are directed into the depth of the picture can be perpendicular to the picture plane or go to it at different angles. An object seems to us to become smaller as it moves away from the eyes, and parallel lines directed inward seem to approach each other at the vanishing point.
Square and circle perspective. A square in perspective will be either a trapezoid if its two sides are parallel to the picture plane, or an irregular quadrilateral if the plane of the square is located at a random angle. In the first case, two sides of the square will be parallel to the horizon line, and the sides going deeper will converge at the central vanishing point P (Fig. 1.26, a). In the second case, the sides of the square will be directed to the vanishing points Fx and F2, located to the right and left of the central one (Fig. 1.26, b).
A circle in perspective looks like an ellipse (Fig. 1.27). The closer to the horizon line, the narrower the ellipse becomes, and when it coincides with the horizon line, it turns into a straight line. When constructing the perspective of a circle, you should pay attention to the fact that the front half of the circle will be larger, and the back half will be smaller.
Cube perspective. It is best to understand the principles of changing shape in perspective using the example of such a simple geometric body as a cube. There can be two main, characteristic positions of the cube in relation to the picture plane: frontal (planes located parallel to the picture) and at an angle. In the first case, the perspective is frontal, and in the second - angular.
In the frontal arrangement of the cube, two of its faces are parallel to the plane of the picture, and the rest are perpendicular to it. Horizontal lines, forming faces going into depth, will converge at one, central vanishing point P (Fig. 1.28). 
When constructing a cube perspective in an angular position, there will be two vanishing points Fx and F2 on the horizon line, located to the right and left of the central one (Fig. 1.29). Moreover, one or even both vanishing points may be outside the picture.
Knowledge of the laws of linear perspective will help the painter to understand the internal structure of the form in order to depict it vividly and convincingly. However, the use of perspective constructions should not turn the drawings into dry diagrams. Knowledge of the laws of perspective helps when drawing from life, from memory and from imagination. 
