Literary movement - often identified with artistic method. Denotes a set of fundamental spiritual- aesthetic principles many writers, as well as a number of groups and schools, their programmatic aesthetic attitudes, and the means used. In the struggle and change of directions, the laws of the literary process are most clearly expressed. It is customary to distinguish the following literary trends:
Classicism
Romanticism
Sentimentalism
Naturalism
Realism
Symbolism (French) is one of the largest movements in art (in literature, music and painting), which arose in France in the 1870-80s. and reached its greatest development in turn of the 19th century and 20th centuries, primarily in France itself, Belgium and Russia. The Symbolists radically changed not only various types art, but also the very attitude towards it. Their experimental nature, desire for innovation, cosmopolitanism and wide range of influences have become a model for many modern trends art.
Acmeism (from Greek - “the highest degree, peak, flowering, blooming time”) - literary movement, opposing symbolism and arising at the beginning of the 20th century in Russia. The Acmeists proclaimed materiality, objectivity of themes and images, and precision of words.
The formation of Acmeism is closely connected with the activities of the “Workshop of Poets”, central figure which was the organizer of Acmeism N.S. Gumilyov.
The term “acmeism” was proposed in 1912 by N. Gumilyov and S. M. Gorodetsky: in their opinion, symbolism, which was experiencing a crisis, is being replaced by a direction that generalizes the experience of its predecessors and takes the poet to new heights creative achievements.
Futurism. The author of the word and the founder of the movement is the Italian poet Filippo Marinetti (poem “Red Sugar”). The name itself implies a cult of the future and discrimination of the past along with the present. Futurism can be viewed as a kind of fusion of Nietzscheanism and the Communist Party manifesto. The dynamics of movement should replace the static of posing sculptures, paintings and portraits. A camera and a movie camera will replace the imperfections of painting and the eyes.
Imagism
Literary movement- often identified with a literary group and school. Denotes a collection creative personalities, which are characterized ideological and artistic proximity and programmatic-aesthetic unity. Otherwise, a literary movement is a type of literary movement.
Postmodernism(French postmodernisme - after modernism) - a term denoting structurally similar phenomena in the world public life and culture of the second half of the 20th century. The emergence of postmodernism in the 60s and 70s is connected and logically follows from the processes of Modernism as a reaction to the crisis of its ideas, as well as to the so-called death of foundations: God (Nietzsche), author (Barthes), man (humanitarianism). The term appears during the First World War in the work of R. Panwitz “Crisis European culture"(1914). In 1934, in his book “Anthology of Spanish and Latin American Poetry,” literary critic F. de Onis uses it to indicate a reaction to modernism.
Expressionism(from Latin expressio, “expression”) - avant-garde movement V European art, developed in the late 19th - early 20th centuries, characterized by a tendency to express the emotional characteristics of an image(s) (usually a person or group of people) or the emotional state of the artist himself. Expressionism is represented in a variety of artistic forms, including painting, literature, theater, film, architecture and music.
Decadence (decadence)
Decadence (from Late Latin - decline) is the general name for the crisis phenomena of European culture of the 2nd half of the 19th century- the beginning of the 20th century, marked by moods of hopelessness, rejection of life, and individualist tendencies. A complex and contradictory phenomenon that has its source in crisis public consciousness, the confusion of many artists in the face of the sharp social antagonisms of reality. Decadent artists considered art’s refusal of political and civil themes to be a manifestation and an indispensable condition for creative freedom. Constant themes are the motives of non-existence and death, longing for spiritual values and ideals.
Avant-garde (French Avant-garde, “advanced detachment”) is a general name for movements in European art that arose at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, expressed in a polemical and combative form (hence the name itself, taken from military-political vocabulary). Its time frame is considered to be the period from 1870 to 1938 [source not specified 167 days]. Avant-garde is characterized by an experimental approach to artistic creativity that goes beyond classical aesthetics, using original, innovative means of expression, emphasized by symbolism artistic images.
The concept of avant-garde is largely eclectic in nature. This term denotes a number of schools and movements in art, sometimes having a diametrically opposed ideological basis.
Modernism (Italian modernismo - “modern movement”; from Latin modernus - “modern, recent”) is a direction in the art and literature of the 20th century, characterized by a break with the previous historical experience of artistic creativity, the desire to establish new non-traditional principles in art, continuous renewal artistic forms, as well as the conventionality (schematization, abstraction) of style. The modernist paradigm was one of the leading ones in Western civilization in the first half of the 20th century; in the second half of the century it was subjected to extensive criticism. The term “modernism” is inherent only in the domestic school of art history; in Western sources it is the term “modern”. Since in Russian aesthetics “modern” means artistic style, predating modernism, it is necessary to distinguish between these two concepts in order to avoid confusion.
Literary direction is often identified with artistic method. Designates a set of fundamental spiritual and aesthetic principles of many writers, as well as a number of groups and schools, their programmatic and aesthetic attitudes, and the means used. In the struggle and change of directions, the laws of the literary process are most clearly expressed. It is customary to distinguish the following literary trends:
Classicism
Sentimentalism
Naturalism
Romanticism (which some include Baroque literature)
Symbolism
Realism (which distinguishes Renaissance realism, i.e. realism of the Renaissance, Enlightenment realism, i.e. realism of the Enlightenment, critical realism And socialist realism).
There is no consensus on the legality of identifying other directions - such as mannerism, pre-romanticism, neoclassicism, neo-romanticism, impressionism, expressionism, modernism, etc. The fact is that literary trends, changing, give rise to many intermediate forms that do not exist for long and are not global in nature. There have been attempts to propose more universal systems of division into literary movements - for example. "classic" and "romance"; or "realistic" and "irrealistic" literature.
Literary movement
2. Literary movement - often identified with a literary group and school. Designates a set of creative personalities who are characterized by ideological and artistic affinity and programmatic and aesthetic unity. Otherwise, a literary movement is a type of literary movement.
For example, in relation to Russian romanticism they talk about “philosophical”, “psychological” and “civil” movements. In Russian realism, some distinguish “psychological” and “sociological” trends.
Speech as a means of individualizing an image.
In dramatic literature, the character of the hero is revealed mainly by means of language, by means of stage speech. That is why the method he widely and brilliantly developed in creative practice played such a major role in solving the problem of creating a typical character. speech characteristics acting person.
Psychological analysis in literature
Paradoxically, “psychological analysis” is a concept that is not often found in psychological literature.
Psychological analysis began its starting point long before the appearance of Freud’s works, but it was in his works that it acquired a special sound, like a new birth, and entered scientific practice.
PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS - variety scientific analysis, similar to philosophical, mathematical, etc. Characteristic feature psychological analysis is that the object of its study is mental reality, mental processes, states, and properties of a person. As well as various socio-psychological phenomena that arise in groups and teams: opinions, communication, relationships, conflicts, leadership, etc. Methodological basis Psychological analysis can include philosophical systems, general scientific principles of cognition, as well as general psychological principles about the subject, the connection between internal and external, the specificity of psychological patterns to which this or that type of activity is subordinated. For example, a psychological analysis of self-education involves studying the goals, motives, methods of independent work to acquire, deepen, expand and improve knowledge, skills, abilities, as well as its characteristics in the conditions of general and special education.
Psychological analysis is an example of psychological portrayal in literature.
Consists in the fact that complex states of mind characters are decomposed into their components and thereby explained and become clear to the reader. At psychological analysis Third-person narration has its advantages. This art form allows the author to introduce the reader into inner world character and show him in the most detail and depth.
Poets silver age.
Atmosphere of the Silver Age
At the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth centuries, Russia experienced an intense intellectual upsurge, especially clearly manifested in philosophy and poetry. The philosopher Nikolai Berdyaev called this time the Russian cultural renaissance.
“Now it’s hard to imagine the atmosphere of that time,” Nikolai Berdyaev wrote about the Silver Age in his “philosophical autobiography” “Self-Knowledge.” - Much of the creative upsurge of that time entered into the further development of Russian culture and is now the property of all Russian cultural people. But then there was the intoxication of creativity, novelty, tension, struggle, challenge. During these years, many gifts were sent to Russia. This was the era of the awakening of independent philosophical thought in Russia, the flowering of poetry and the intensification of aesthetic sensuality, religious anxiety and quest, interest in mysticism and the occult. New souls appeared, new sources were discovered creative life, saw new dawns, combined the feeling of decline and death with the hope of a transformation of life. But everything happened in a rather vicious circle...”
But the Silver Age is not only a chronological period. The concept of “Silver Age” is appropriate to apply to a way of thinking that, being characteristic of artists who were at odds with each other during their lifetime, ultimately merged them in the minds of their descendants into a kind of inseparable galaxy that formed the specific atmosphere of the Silver Age that Berdyaev wrote about.
The names of the poets who formed the spiritual core of the Silver Age are known to everyone: Valery Bryusov, Fyodor Sologub, Innokenty Annensky, Alexander Blok, Maximilian Voloshin, Andrei Bely, Konstantin Balmont, Anna Akhmatova, Nikolai Gumilev, Marina Tsvetaeva, Vyacheslav Ivanov, Igor Severyanin, Boris Pasternak , Georgy Ivanov and many others.
The poets of the Silver Age also sought to overcome the attempts of the second half of the 19th century to explain human behavior social conditions, environment and continued the traditions of Russian poetry, for which man was important in himself, his thoughts and feelings, his attitude to eternity, to God, to Love and Death in a philosophical, metaphysical sense were important. Poets of the Silver Age, both in their artistic work and in theoretical articles and statements, questioned the idea of progress for literature. For example, one of the brightest creators of the Silver Age, Osip Mandelstam, wrote that the idea of progress is “the most disgusting type of school ignorance.” And Alexander Blok in 1910 argued: “The sun of naive realism has set; it is impossible to comprehend anything outside of symbolism.”
The poets of the Silver Age believed in art, in the power of words. Therefore, immersion in the element of words and the search for new means of expression are indicative of their creativity. They cared not only about meaning, but also about style - sound, the music of words and complete immersion in the elements were important to them. This immersion led to the cult of life-creativity (the inseparability of the personality of the creator and his art). And almost always, because of this, the poets of the Silver Age were unhappy in their personal lives, and many of them came to a bad end.
LITERARY SCHOOLS AND TRENDS
SYMBOLISM- the first and most significant of modernist movements in Russia. The philosophy and aesthetics of symbolism developed under the influence of various teachings - from the views of the ancient philosopher Plato to the philosophical systems of V. Solovyov, F. Nietzsche, A. Bergson, contemporary to the symbolists. The symbolists contrasted the traditional idea of understanding the world in art with the idea of constructing the world in the process of creativity. Creativity in the understanding of the symbolists is a subconscious-intuitive contemplation of secret meanings, accessible only to the artist-creator. Moreover, it is impossible to rationally convey the contemplated “secrets”. According to the greatest theoretician among the Symbolists, Vyacheslav Ivanov, poetry is “the secret writing of the ineffable.” The artist is required not only to have super-rational sensitivity, but also to have the subtlest mastery of the art of allusion: the value of poetic speech lies in “understatement,” “hiddenness of meaning.” The main means of conveying the contemplated secret meanings and a symbol was called upon.
Symbolism tried to create a new philosophy of culture and, after going through a painful period of revaluation of values, sought to develop a new universal worldview. Having overcome the extremes of individualism and subjectivism, the symbolists at the dawn of the new century raised the question of the social role of the artist in a new way and began to move towards the creation of such forms of art, the experience of which could unite people again.
Symbolist poets
Alexander Blok
Bryusov Valery
Gippius Zinaida
Ivanov Vyacheslav
Acmeism(from the Greek akme - the highest degree of something, blossoming, maturity, peak, edge) - one of the modernist movements in Russian poetry of the 1910s, formed as a reaction to the extremes of symbolism.
The Acmeists strove for sensual plastic-material clarity of the image and accuracy, precision of the poetic word. Their “earthly” poetry is prone to intimacy, aestheticism and poeticization of the feelings of primordial man. Acmeism was characterized by extreme apoliticality, complete indifference to the pressing problems of our time.
If in the poetry of symbolism the determining factor was a certain secret, covered with an aura of mysticism, then as cornerstone Acmeism poetry was based on a realistic view of things. The vague instability and vagueness of symbols was replaced by precise verbal images. The word, according to Acmeists, should have acquired its original meaning.
Acmeists often turn to mythological subjects and images. Distinctive feature The Acmeist circle of poets was their “organizational cohesion.” Essentially, the Acmeists were not so much an organized movement with a common theoretical platform, but rather a group of talented and very different poets who were united by personal friendship. They gave their union the significant name “Workshop of Poets.”
The main ideas of Acmeism were presented in the program articles by N. Gumilyov “The Heritage of Symbolism and Acmeism” and S. Gorodetsky “Some Trends in Modern Russian Poetry.” S. Gorodetsky believed that “symbolism... having filled the world with “correspondences”, turned it into a phantom, important only insofar as it... shines through with other worlds, and belittled its high intrinsic value. Among the Acmeists, the rose again became good in itself, with its petals, scent and color, and not with its conceivable likenesses with mystical love or anything else.”
Basic principles of Acmeism:
Liberating poetry from symbolist appeals to the ideal, returning it to clarity;
- rejection of mystical nebula, acceptance of the earthly world in its diversity, visible concreteness, sonority, colorfulness;
- the desire to give a certain word to a word, exact value;
- objectivity and clarity of images, precision of details;
- appeal to a person, to the “authenticity” of his feelings;
- poeticization of the world of primordial emotions, primitive biological natural principles;
- roll call with the past literary eras, the broadest aesthetic associations, “longing for world culture.”
Acmeist poets
Akhmatova Anna
Gumilev Nikolay
Mandelstam Osip
Sergey Gorodetsky
Mikhail Zenkevich
Vladimir Narbut
Futurism(from Latin futurum - future) - the general name of the artistic avant-garde movements of the 1910s - early 1920s. XX century, primarily in Italy and Russia.
This movement claimed to build a new art - “the art of the future”, speaking under the slogan of a nihilistic negation of all previous artistic experience.
Futurists preached the destruction of the forms and conventions of art in order to merge it with the accelerated life process of the 20th century. They are characterized by a reverence for action, movement, speed, strength and aggression; exaltation of oneself and contempt for the weak; the priority of force, the rapture of war and destruction were asserted. In this regard, futurism in its ideology was very close to both right-wing and left-wing radicals: anarchists, fascists, communists, focused on the revolutionary overthrow of the past.
The idea of exhaustion of cultural tradition previous centuries was the starting point of the aesthetic platform of the Cubo-Futurists. Their manifesto, which bore the deliberately scandalous title “A Slap in the Face of Public Taste,” became the programmatic one. It declared a rejection of the art of the past, and there were calls to “throw out Pushkin, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy, etc., etc. from the steamship of modern times."
However, despite the rather harsh tone and polemical style of the manifesto, the almanac expressed many ideas about ways to further develop art and bring poetry and painting closer together. Behind the external bravado of its authors there was a serious attitude towards creativity. And the famous shocking phrase about Pushkin, which seemingly does not allow for other interpretations, was explained by Khlebnikov, to whom, in fact, it belonged, in a completely different way: “Budetlyanin is Pushkin in coverage of the world war, in the cloak of the new century, teaching the right of the century to laugh over Pushkin of the 19th century” and no longer sounded shocking. Russian futurism did not develop into a coherent artistic system; this term denoted a variety of trends in the Russian avant-garde. The system was the avant-garde itself. And it was dubbed futurism in Russia by analogy with Italian. And this movement turned out to be much more heterogeneous than the symbolism and acmeism that preceded it.
One of the founders of the movement, V. Khlebnikov was actively involved in revolutionary changes in the field of the Russian language. In an effort to expand the boundaries of the language and its capabilities, he worked hard to create new words. According to his theory, the word is deprived of its semantic meaning, acquiring a subjective coloring: “We understand vowels as time and space (the nature of aspiration), consonants - paint, sound, smell.”
Very soon the words “futurist” and “hooligan” became synonymous for the modern moderate public. The press followed with delight the “exploits” of the creators of new art. This contributed to their popularity among wide circles of the population, aroused increased interest, and attracted more and more attention.
The main features of futurism:
Rebellion, anarchy, expression of the mass mood of the crowd;
- denial cultural traditions, an attempt to create art that looks to the future;
- rebellion against the usual norms of poetic speech, experimentation in the field of rhythm, rhyme, focus on the spoken verse;
- experiments to create an “abstruse” language;
- cult of technology, industrial cities;
- the pathos of shocking.
Futurist poets:
Burliuk David
Vvedensky Alexander
Kamensky Vasily
Mayakovsky Vladimir
Severyanin Igor
Khlebnikov Velimir
Imagism(from French and English image - image) - a literary and artistic movement that arose in Russia in the first post-revolutionary years on the basis of the literary practice of futurism.
Imagism was the last sensational school in Russian poetry of the 20th century. This direction was created two years after the revolution, but in all its content it had nothing in common with the revolution.
The theory of imagism proclaimed the primacy of the “image as such” as the main principle of poetry. Not a word-symbol with an infinite number of meanings (symbolism), not a word-sound (cubo-futurism), not a word-name of a thing (Acmeism), but a word-metaphor with one specific meaning is the basis of imagism. In their Declaration, the Imagists argued that “the only law of art, the only and incomparable method is the revelation of life through the image and rhythm of images... The image, and only the image, is the instrument of production of the master of art... Only the image, like mothballs pouring over the work, saves this latter from pray for time. The image is the armor of the line.” The theoretical justification of this principle was reduced by the Imagists to the assimilation poetic creativity the process of language development through metaphor.
Essentially, there was nothing particularly new in their techniques, as well as in their “imagery”. “Imagism” as one of the techniques of artistic creativity was widely used not only by futurism, but also by symbolism. What was new was only the tenacity with which the Imagists brought the image to the fore and reduced everything in poetry to it - both content and form.
A characteristic feature of the development of Russian poetry in the first decades of the 20th century was that every literary direction was born under the sign of irreconcilable struggle, rivalry with its predecessors. And if the beginning of the 1910s passed under the sign of “overcoming symbolism” by the Acmeists and Futurists, then Imagism, which arose at the end of the decade, designated the ultimate goal of its struggle as “overcoming futurism,” with which it essentially had a family relationship: “A baby, a loud-mouthed guy, died ten years old (born 1909 - died 1919) - Futurism died. Let’s strike out in unison: death to futurism and futurism!”
In five years active work The imagists were able to win a loud, although scandalous fame. Poetic debates constantly took place, where the masters of the new movement very successfully proved to others the superiority of the newly invented poetic system over all previous ones.
The actions of the Imagists sometimes went beyond the generally accepted norms of behavior. These include painting the walls of the Strastnoy Monastery with blasphemous inscriptions, and the “renaming” of Moscow streets (the “Tverskaya” sign was changed to “Yeseninskaya”), etc. In 1919, the Imagists demanded nothing less than “separation of the state from art” .
The relations of imagists with the authorities - due to the peculiarities of their creative position, extra-literary connections and historical moment - require special attention. Imagists, due to their scandalous, bohemian lifestyle, often fell into the hands of the police and Cheka workers. The only thing that helped them out was their numerous connections with the same security officers.
The main features of imagism:
Imagist poets
Yesenin Sergey
Ivnev Rurik
Mariengof Anatoly
Shershenevich Vadim
The pearls of the Silver Age were the poets, not belonging to any of the literary schools and directions.
Bunin Ivan
Pasternak Boris
Tsvetaeva Marina
Direction, flow, school is artistic communities historically formed during the literary process. Direction was originally understood as general character of all national literature or some period of it, as well as the goal towards which it should strive. In 1821, professor at Moscow University I.I. Davydov stated that from learned societies “Russian literature can and should receive its true direction”; in 1822, Professor A.F. Merzlyakov called on to determine the direction and successes of Russian literature; in 1824 V.K. Kuchelbecker published the article “On the direction of our poetry, especially lyrical, in last decade" In the article by I.V. Kireevsky “The Nineteenth Century” (1832) “the dominant trend of minds” of the late 18th century. was defined as destructive, and the new as consisting “in the desire for a soothing equation of the new spirit with the ruins of old times... In literature, the result of this direction was the desire to reconcile imagination with reality, the correctness of forms with freedom of content... in a word, what is in vain called classicism , with what is even more incorrectly called romanticism.” As a result, the direction of minds mentioned latest works J.W. Goethe and the novels of W. Skotg. K.L. Polevoy directly applied the word “direction” to certain stages of literature, without abandoning its broader meanings. In the article “On trends and parties in literature,” he called a direction “that internal striving of literature, often invisible to contemporaries, which gives character to all or at least very many of its works in the known, given time...The basis of it, in in a general sense, there is an idea modern era or direction of an entire people. Criticism of those years mentioned different directions: “folk”, “Byronic”, “historical”, “German”, “French”. P.A. Vyazemsky in the book “Fon-Vizin” (1830) highlighted the satirical direction in the Russian theater from A.P. Sumarokov to A.S. Griboyedov. The central concept of direction became in the criticism of V.G. Belinsky, N.G. Chernyshevsky, N.A. Dobrolyubov. IN colloquial speech“a writer with a direction” meant a tendentious writer. At the same time, the direction was understood as a variety of literary communities. F.M. Dostoevsky in his anti-Dobrolyubov article “Gn - bov and the question of art” (1861) recognizes the existence of literary parties “in the sense of dissenting convictions” and “the need for a sensible direction in literature” (“we ourselves thirst, hunger for a good direction and its high value"), but he is against the narrow understanding of the social benefits of art by the "utilitarian trend."
Flow
Gradually, along with the concept of “direction”, the almost synonymous, but more neutral, not associated with demonstrative bias, concept of “current” begins to be used. It is also distinguished by uncertainty, sometimes even greater than the “direction,” as in D.S. Merezhkovsky’s brochure “On the causes of the decline and new trends in modern Russian literature” (1893). K.D. Balmont in the article “Elementary words about symbolic poetry” (1904) closely linked symbolism “with two other varieties of modern literary creativity, known under the name of decadence and impressionism,” believing that in fact “all these trends either run parallel, then diverge, or merge into one stream, but, in any case, they strive in the same direction.” Literary studies of the first third of the 20th century. willingly used the term style in the broad art historical sense in relation to the most significant literary communities (P.N. Sakulin, V.M. Friche, I.A. Vinogradov, etc.), sometimes - “style of the era”; the “styles of the era” were remembered much later (D.S. Likhachev, A.V. Mikhailov). Soviet theorists tried to streamline the use of the words “direction” and “current”, based not so much on their historical functioning, but on their logical constructions. The most widespread point of view is that the direction consists of large literary and artistic communities formed by the unity of the creative method: classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism. It was also common to consider the following directions: Renaissance and Enlightenment “realism”, Baroque, naturalism, symbolism, socialist realism. Mannerism, Rococo, pre-Romanticism (identified with sentimentalism), impressionism, expressionism, and futurism raised doubts in this sense. The status of modernism, which orthodox Soviet theory preferred not to deal with, was uncertain. A.N. Sokolov made adjustments to the common elementary scheme. He recognized that the basis of direction is the similarity of substantive principles. But, for example, the romantic period can continue to exist outside the romantic direction (the works of A.A. Fet, A.K. Tolstoy, Y.P. Polonsky); There are also movements that have not developed their own method, such as sentimentalism, which developed in the struggle against classicism and prepared a new, romantic method.
Current was recognized as a type of direction, distinguished according to aesthetic, and more often ideological, principles. Romanticism was divided into revolutionary (in a softened version - progressive) and reactionary (in a softened version - conservative). In French classicism distinguished between movements based on the tradition of rationalism of R. Descartes (P. Corneille, J. Racine, N. Boileau) and movements that more closely adopted the sensualist tradition of P. Gassendi (J. Lafontaine, J. B. Molière). In Russian realism of the 19th century, U.R. Vokht contrasted the psychological and sociological trends. Several trends in socialist realism were distinguished according to a variety of characteristics. G.N. Pospelov separated “literary movements” and “ideological and literary movements”: the latter are not components of the former, they only intersect. Currents seem to be more important. They differ in their ideological and artistic field, first of all, in the commonality of their problems. Directions, according to Pospelov, are distinguished on the basis of the presence of creative programs, and before classicism they did not exist. Currents are recognized in the early stages literary development, since antiquity. Realism is divided into both trends and directions - according to various criteria. Western literary studies usually ignore the concept of direction and flow as scholastic. R. Welleck and O. Warren emphasize the discrepancy between the identities of literary communities and their designations by researchers: in English the name “Era of Humanism” was first recorded in 1832, “Renaissance” - in 1840, “romanticism” - in 1831 (by T. Carlyle) and then in 1844 (the English romantics did not call themselves that; around 1849 S.T. was included among them Coleridge and W. Wordsworth). However, in view of the existence of programs, manifestos, and facts of similarity between national literatures, Welleck and Warren insist on the necessity of the concept of period.
School
School is a small association of writers based on common artistic principles, more or less clearly formulated theoretically. It was a school in the 16th century. group " ". In the 18th century the German classicist I.H. Gottsched opposed the baroque pomposity of the “second Silesian school.” At the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries, the “lake school” of English romantics emerged. In the early 1820s, the concepts of “romantic poetry”, “romantic genus”, “romantic school” spread. V.A. Zhukovsky was later called the founder of the Russian “romantic school.” Russian realism matured within the framework of the “natural School”
As noted earlier, there is no consensus among literary scholars on how to distinguish between the concepts “ art system", "literary direction" and "literary movement". Most often, scientists call “international literary communities” (Baroque, classicism, etc.) “systems,” and use the terms “direction” and “current” in a narrower sense.
The point of view of G.N. is quite common. Pospelov, who believed that literary movement - ϶ᴛᴏ refraction in the work of certain writers and poets public views(worldviews, ideologies), and directions – these are writer groups that arise on the basis of common aesthetic views and certain programs artistic activity(expressed in treatises, manifestos, slogans, etc.). Currents and directions in this meaning of the words - ϶ᴛᴏ facts of selected national literatures(Theory of Literature - M., 1978, pp. 134 - 140).
In other words, direction represents literary concept, denoting a set of fundamental spiritual, substantive and aesthetic principles characteristic of the work of many writers, a number of groups, as well as the coincidence and correspondence of programmatic and creative attitudes, themes, passions and style determined by these most important principles.
According to Pospelov, literary direction appears when a group of writers of a particular country and era unites on the basis of a specific creative program and creates their own works, focusing on its provisions. This contributes to greater creative organization and completeness of their works. But it is not the program principles proclaimed by some group of writers that determine the features of their work, but, on the contrary, the ideological and artistic community creativity unites writers and inspires them to realize and proclaim the corresponding program principles.
In European literatures directions emerge only in modern times, When artistic creativity acquires relative independence and quality as “the art of words,” separating itself from other non-fiction genres. The personal element powerfully enters into literature, it becomes possible to express the author’s point of view, to choose one or another life and creative position. The trends in the history of European literature are considered to be Renaissance realism, baroque, classicism, educational realism, sentimentalism, romanticism, critical realism, naturalism, symbolism, socialist realism. The existence of these major trends in a number of national literatures is more or less generally accepted. The legitimacy of highlighting others - rococo, pre-romanticism, neoclassicism, neo-romanticism, etc. – causes controversy.
The directions are not closed, but open; the transition from one to another usually involves intermediate forms (pre-romanticism in European XVIII literature centuries). A new direction, replacing the old one, does not immediately eliminate it, but coexists with it for some time - creative and theoretical polemics take place between them.
Alternation and the same sequence of directions in European literature allow us to consider them as an international phenomenon; however, one or another direction in each literature appears from this point of view as a national version of the corresponding pan-European model. The national-historical uniqueness of movements in individual countries is sometimes so significant that classifying them as a single type turns out to be problematic, and the typological commonality of classicism, romanticism, etc. – very conditional and relative. Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, when creating general model literary movement has to take into account the degree of typological commonality of its national forms - the fact that under the flag of one direction there are often directions that are qualitatively different.
Occurrence in national literatures literary movements does not mean that all writers necessarily belonged to one or another of them. There were also writers who did not rise to the level of programming their creativity, did not create literary theories, and their creativity, therefore, cannot be assigned designations arising from any program provisions. Such writers do not belong to any movement. They also, of course, have a certain commonality of ideological worldview, created by certain circumstances of the social life of their country and era, which determined the corresponding community ideological content of their works, and hence the forms of its expression. This means that the work of these writers also had some kind of socio-historical pattern. There was a similar group of writers, for example, in Russian literature - in the era of the dominance of the classicist movement in it. It was formed by M. Chulkov, A. Ablesimov, A. Izmailov and others. Such groups of writers, whose work is connected only ideological and artistic, but not by programmatic generality; the science of literature does not give any “proper names” like “classicism”, “sentimentalism”, etc.
According to Pospelov, the work of those groups of writers who have only ideological and artistic community, should call literary movement.
This does not mean that the difference between literary movements and trends lies only in the fact that representatives of the former, possessing an ideological and artistic commonality of creativity, created creative program, and representatives of the latter could not create it. Literary process– the phenomenon is more complex. It often happens that the work of a group of writers, the definition of the country and era that created and proclaimed a single creative program, has, however, only relative And unilateral creative community, that these writers, in essence, belong not to one, but to two (sometimes more) literary movements.
For this reason, while recognizing one creative program, they understand its provisions differently and apply them differently. There are, in other words, literary movements that combine the creativity of writers different trends. Sometimes writers of different, but somewhat ideologically close, movements programmatically unite in the process of their common ideological and artistic polemics with writers of other movements that are sharply hostile to them.
Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, the direction captures the commonality of deep spiritual and aesthetic foundations artistic content, conditioned by the unity of the cultural and artistic tradition, the same type of worldview of writers and the life problems facing them, and ultimately - the similarity of the epoch-making socio- and cultural-historical situation. But the very understanding of the world, that is, the attitude towards the problems posed, the idea of the ways and means of resolving them, ideological and artistic concepts, the ideals of writers belonging to the same direction, are different.
Approaching the concepts of literary direction and flow from such positions, Pospelov raises the question of their existence in national literatures at various stages of their historical development. According to the researcher, at all stages of development fiction(starting with literature Ancient Greece) its source has always been the ideological worldview of writers who represent various social forces with their creativity and from here often create their works on the principle of antithesis. For this reason, if there were no clearly defined trends in national literatures before the 17th century, there were always different trends in them.
Currents existed, for example, in ancient Greek literature the classical era of its development. Attic democracy created in the 5th century BC. brilliant dramaturgy, anti-aristocratic in ideological orientation, authoritarian-mythological in ideals. This was one of the basic trends in ancient literature of that era. But even earlier, from the 6th century BC. in those ancient Greek city-states where the slave-owning aristocracy dominated, lyric poetry actively developed - both civil in content (works of Theognis from Megara, odic choral lyrics of Tyrtaeus in Sparta, Pindar in Thebes), and purely personal, in particular love (Alcaeus and Sappho on Lesbos e, Anacreon). It was a different main current or even currents in ancient literature that era. The turn of the writers of militant Attic democracy to drama, and the aristocratic poets of other cities to lyricism, stemmed from the peculiarities of the creativity of both.
Roman classical literature, created in completely different conditions of social life - in early period the existence of imperial power, in the “age of Augustus,” was characterized by a certain duality of its tendencies. The poets of this time responded to ideological and political demands new government and created literature that was somewhat official, turning to the genre of civil or philosophical poems (“Aeneid” by Virgil, “Metamorphoses”, Ovid). Mythological-authoritarian mentalities completely dominated them. But along with this, the same poets, as well as others, gravitated in their worldview towards an ideological “escape” from the bustle and vicissitudes of life in imperial Rome. They contrasted the heavy atmosphere of the capital with the imaginary joys of shepherd life (“Bucolics” by Virgil), the simplicity of village labor (his “Georgics”), the solitary pleasures of the blessings of existence (“Satires” by Horace), the excitement of love experiences (“Love Poems” by Ovid) or they idealized the old, good morals (“Odes” by Horace, “Elegies” by Tibullus). Here, with all the mythological authoritarianism of their worldview, the spontaneous humanistic aspirations of these poets manifested themselves.
Various trends can be identified throughout the subsequent development of literature. So, for example, in English romanticism, researchers distinguish three movements: revolutionary (Byron, Shelley), conservative (Wordsworth, Coleridge, Southey) and London (Keats, Leigh Hunt) romantics. In relation to Russian romanticism they talk about “philosophical”, “psychological”, “civil” movements. In Russian realism, some researchers distinguish between “psychological” and “sociological” movements.
Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, if literary movements existed in national literatures from the very beginning historical life, then literary trends took shape in them only at relatively late stages of development and always at basis ideological and artistic content literature of certain movements. For this reason, it is not literary movements that give birth to literary movements and contain them within themselves, as some researchers believe, but, on the contrary, movements can form a single direction at some stage of their development, and before that or later exist outside its boundaries. Thus, the literary movement of Russian noble revolutionism began with the work of A.N. Radishchev, who was not a romantic. Later, motives of civil romance arose in it (Pushkin, Ryleev and others), and it entered the direction of romanticism together with poets and another, religious-romantic movement (Zhukovsky, Kozlov and others) (Pospelov G.N. Theory of Literature - M., 1987, pp. 140 – 160).
Along with the terms “direction” and “current”, the concept “ school" and "grouping". Literary groups and schools presuppose a direct ideological and artistic proximity and programmatic and aesthetic unity of its participants (“the lake school” in English romanticism, the “Parnassus” group in France, “ natural school"in Russia, etc.).
