The culture of the European Middle Ages covers the period from the 4th century to the 13th century. It is considered to have begun with the reign of Constantine the Great (306–337), during which Christianity became the official religion and became a culture-forming factor, the foundation of a new culture. Christianity acted as a teaching in opposition to the ancient world. The dispute between pagan culture and the spirit of Christianity continued throughout the medieval period. These were two opposing systems of thought, two worldviews. At the same time, Christianity, solving the problems of ideological and dogmatic formulation, could not help but turn to the ancient heritage, first of all, the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle. There is another component of the medieval culture of Europe - the culture of “barbarian” peoples, whose Christianization occurred later. Mythology, legends, heroic epics, decorative and applied arts of these peoples also entered the system of images of European culture. European civilization, ultimately, is formed on the basis of ancient models, Christian values ​​and “barbarian” culture. From the very beginning, European Christian culture included two parts: the Latin-Celtic-Germanic west and the Syriac-Greco-Coptic east, and their centers were Rome and Constantinople, respectively.

Christianity came out as religion of a new type. Taking the idea of ​​a single God from Judaism, Christianity brings the idea of ​​a personal understanding of the Absolute to a state that is expressed in two central dogmas: Trinity and Incarnation. The main dogmas of Christianity were formalized in the 4th–5th centuries at the Councils of Nicaea (325), Constantinople (381) and Chalcedon (451), where special attention focused on the problem of the Trinity and the Christological problem. As a result of these discussions, the Creed was established, containing the main provisions of Christian doctrine.

Christianity is addressed to all people and nations. For the first time it was the religious unity of people: “For you are all sons of God through faith in Christ Jesus; all of you who were baptized in Christ have put on Christ. There is no longer Jew or Gentile; There is neither slave nor free, there is neither male nor female: for you are all one in Christ Jesus” (Gal. 3:26-28). Christianity simplified and humanized the cult, eliminating the practice of sacrifice. Christianity abandoned the strict regulation of people’s behavior and left room for freedom of choice, but in return the idea of ​​a person’s personal responsibility for his actions appears.

Human life received a new meaning and direction. Life “according to the spirit” and “according to the flesh” is contrasted, and the ideal of spiritual exaltation is affirmed. A Christian person actively participates in the universal battle of good and evil. The requirements for moral life: from now on, not only a person’s actions, but also a person’s thoughts are subject to evaluation. This issue is given serious attention in Christ's Sermon on the Mount (Matthew 5:27-28). Christianity Reveals Complexity inner world person, his personality. Christianity condemns violence and proclaims the value of spiritual love. Man has learned to make himself into something he was not before. He is the crown of creation, a co-creator with God, his image and likeness. An act of socialization in new culture becomes baptism, in other words, a person from a “natural” being, Homo naturalis turns into Homo christianus.

The very image of the deity also changed. In Christianity, God is an absolute spiritual entity that creates and governs the world. But the main thing is that he represents a moral example. The incarnation of God testifies to his compassion and love for people. The concept becomes extremely important in Christianity grace– the possibility of salvation for every person and God’s help in this salvation.

Significant changes the picture of the world of medieval man has undergone. It is based on theocentrism - the idea of ​​the unity of the universe, the center of which is God. The idea of ​​God is the main regulatory idea, through its prism all aspects of human existence, sociality, the very existence of the world and its spatio-temporal unfolding are considered. Theocentrism determines the integrity of the medieval worldview and the undifferentiation of its individual spheres. The unity of the created world is expressed in the correlation of the microcosm - man and the macrocosm - the Universe.

Perception of space and time ( chronotope) is a very important characteristic of culture and varies significantly among different cultures. In mythological culture, the perception of time was cyclical. Time in antiquity is a constantly renewed cyclical time, an eternal cycle, it brings something new and constantly similar. The transition from paganism to Christianity changes the entire structure temporary representations. It is based on the division, and even opposition, of time and eternity. Eternity is an attribute of God. And time - does it belong to man? In Christianity, time is a characteristic of the created world, but its flow depends entirely on the will of the Creator. It has the following characteristics: linearity, irreversibility, finitude, directionality. Time is separated from eternity, it has a beginning and an end (the creation of the world and the Last Judgment). Time is structured - history is divided into events before the birth of Christ and after Christmas. Within this most important division of times, segments associated with the events of biblical history are distinguished. This scheme of historical parallelism was developed in the works of Augustine, Isidore of Seville, Bede the Venerable, and Honorius Augustodunsky. Main point human history becomes the incarnation of the Lord. Time and eternity are respectively attributes of the City of Earth and the City of God. Historical facts are endowed with religious significance in connection with this, and the meaning of history appears in the discovery of God. Christian history acquired its classical form in the 2nd half of the 12th century - in the work of Peter Comestor “Scholastic History”.

Medieval culture is characterized by a pessimistic perception of time. Already in primitive Christianity it develops eschatologism, a feeling of the end of times and anticipation of the imminent second coming of Christ and the Last Judgment. The Last Judgment is depicted as the end of astronomical time (“And the sky disappeared, rolled up like a scroll…”) and historical time. In Revelation, four beasts are named, enclosed in a circle - they symbolize the four already accomplished earthly kingdoms and signify the end of earthly history, earthly time. In the Middle Ages one can find many texts in which the “old” times are glorified, and modernity is seen as a decline.

At the same time, medieval people are interested in everything related to the category of time. His favorite reading is chronicles and lives of saints. For noble lords and knights, the length of the pedigree, the history of families and dynasties, and the antiquity of heraldic symbols were important.

At the end of the medieval era of European history, one of the most remarkable inventions was made European civilization– mechanical watches (XIII century). They meant absolutely new way understanding of human existence in time, characteristic of the transition from agrarian civilization to urban culture.

Mechanical watches clearly demonstrated that time has its own rhythm and extension, independent of its religious or anthropomorphic meanings. Time was recognized as a huge value.

Categories of space underwent no less significant changes during the transition to the Middle Ages. As in the perception of time, the basis of the spatial model in the Middle Ages was the biblical picture of the world. The Middle Ages adopted the ancient tradition of dividing the earth into three parts - Europe, Asia, Africa, but identified each with a certain biblical space. The division of the inhabited world into two parts - the Christian and non-Christian world - becomes fundamental. The borders of the Christian world gradually expanded, but in the Middle Ages Christianity remained primarily a European phenomenon. Closed on the earth, the Christian world opened upward. The basic spatial structure - top-bottom, Heaven-earth - takes on the meaning of ascent from sin to holiness, from destruction to salvation. The space acquires a hierarchical structure, and the vertical becomes its dominant feature. The true, highest reality was possessed not by the world of phenomena, but by the world of divine essences, which was embodied in the predominance of planar images, or in the technique of reverse perspective. Reverse perspective served as a means of depicting not the real, but the symbolic.

The space of the temple becomes the embodiment of the system of Christian values. “The symbol of the universe was the cathedral, the structure of which was thought to be in all respects similar to the cosmic order; a review of its internal plan, the dome of the altar, and the chapels should have given a complete picture of the structure of the world. Every detail, as well as the layout as a whole, was executed symbolic meaning. The person praying in the temple contemplated the beauty of divine creation.” The entire space of the temple is deeply symbolic: numerical symbolism, geometric symbolism, orientation of the temple to the cardinal points, etc. Dynamism internal space The temple includes two main aspects - entrance and exit, ascent and descent. The entrance and doors have their own meaning. The alternation of open and closed gates also has a deep meaning and expresses the rhythm of the Universe. The arches of the perspective portal visually resemble a rainbow - a sign of the covenant between God and people. The round rosette above the portal symbolizes Heaven, Christ, the Virgin Mary, the centric temple and the image of the Heavenly Jerusalem. In plan, the Christian temple has the shape of a cross, an ancient symbol, which in Christianity takes on a new meaning - the crucifixion as an atoning sacrifice and victory over death.

All these spatial meanings are united by one main purpose - to serve as a road to God. The concepts of path and journey are very characteristic of medieval culture. The man of the Middle Ages was a wanderer seeking the kingdom of God. This movement is both real and speculative. It is realized in pilgrimage, religious procession. The space of the medieval city with its long, winding and narrow streets is adapted for a religious procession.

In the space of a Gothic cathedral, light plays a special role. Light (claritas) is an extremely significant category of medieval culture. The light is different physical world and the light of consciousness. Light is a symbol of God, a sign of his presence in this world, the highest and purest essence, therefore it correlates with the concepts of beauty, perfection, and good. Such light is not perceived by the eyes, but through intellectual vision.

One should keep in mind the dualism of medieval thinking, the feeling of two planes of existence - real and spiritual. One of Augustine’s main works, “On the City of God,” is dedicated to the existence of two cities – earthly and heavenly. Any phenomenon of medieval culture had symbolic meaning, acquired many meanings, or rather four main meanings: historical or factual, allegorical, moralizing and sublime.

The desire for the victory of the spirit over the body gave rise to such a phenomenon as monasticism (from the Greek Monachos - lonely, hermit). The desire for the highest form of serving God was combined with renunciation of the world, especially after Christianity begins to integrate into existing world, to establish connections with secular power, which she had previously rejected. Monasticism originated in Egypt, Palestine, Syria, and then came to Western Europe. Two types of monastic organization have emerged: the monastic organization (hermitage) and the cenobitic organization (monastic community). The formation of the ideology of monasticism is associated with the name of Theodore the Studite. Monasticism did not remain unchanged; its principles, goals, and regulations changed. The charter and principles of monastic life in various versions were developed by Basil the Great, Benedict of Nursia, Flavius ​​Cassiodorus, Dominic, and Francis of Assisi. Gradually, monasteries became large cultural centers, including libraries, book workshops, and schools in their structure.

In late medieval European culture, it is necessary to note such an important feature as the emergence and development of middle forms of culture. Early Christianity strongly contrasted holiness and sinfulness, born of the Spirit and born of the flesh. The emergence of the idea of ​​Purgatory meant the smoothing out of opposites and the recognition of worldly service to God along with monastic asceticism, i.e. variability of acceptable forms of Christian behavior. The culture of the Christian Middle Ages, being holistic in its universals, becomes stratified. It includes knightly, scientific and folk culture. In the late Middle Ages, the culture of burghers - townspeople - took shape as an independent layer. With the development of feudal institutions, vassalage relations and corporate ties began to play a special role in the culture of the Middle Ages. Corporations form standards for human attitudes and behavior, a system of values ​​and the structure of consciousness.

Another socio-cultural difference between people of the medieval era was related to their attitude towards learning. Folk culture– the culture of the simpletons, “illiterari”, the culture of the “silent majority” (as defined by A.Ya. Gurevich), included many mythological elements. The learned languages ​​of the Middle Ages were Latin and Greek - developed literary languages, amazing tools of thinking.

Until the 10th–13th centuries, mastering literacy in Europe was far from a common occurrence, even questionable from the point of view of Christianity. TO XIII century learned people became commonplace, even an overproduction of people of mental labor began, from which the scientific profession was formed.

In the Middle Ages there was one problem that worried any person, regardless of his class and type of activity - the thought of death and posthumous fate. She left a person alone with God and revealed the individuality of his destiny. It was this thought that gave rise to the high emotional level of medieval culture, its passion. To ease this burden, a person laughs. Laughter, carnival culture is the second, reverse, but necessary side of medieval culture.

Medieval culture spoke herself in the language of not only religious symbols, but also artistic images, and the line between them was very thin. The artistic languages ​​of the Middle Ages were Romance and gothic styles. Massive Romanesque structures expressed brutal strength spiritual world people. Gothic began to develop in the 13th century, decorativeness and aestheticism increased in it, and elements of urban, secular culture appeared.

Medieval culture contains many paradoxes: its integrity is combined with the differentiation of various layers of culture, it combines freedom and dependence, piety and witchcraft, the glorification of learning and its condemnation, fear and laughter. She went through several stages of development, changed in her forms and kept her spirit unchanged. The immediacy of the attitude towards life, its organic experience - such was the worldview of a person in this culture, a person who preserved his integrity, the continuity of his consciousness, the fullness of being.

Introduction
1.Mental fundamentals and characteristic features Western European medieval culture
2. European culture early Middle Ages
3. European culture of the mature and late Middle Ages
4. Culture of Byzantium: stages and trends of development
Conclusion
List of used literature

Introduction

At the end of the 5th century. on the ruins of the Western Roman Empire, a new cultural and historical type of European society began to emerge. Self-determined back in the 4th century. The Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium) followed its own cultural and civilizational path, which doomed it to a kind of slow archaization and stagnation. But, despite the different ways of forming socio-political systems, there was an undeniable similarity between medieval Western Europe and Byzantium, based on the dominance of feudal relations and Christianity. The latter, however, internally split into Eastern Orthodoxy and Western Catholicism (the split was formally consolidated in 1054).

The emergence of two Christian denominations deepened the economic, political and spiritual division between Byzantium and the West. IN new Europe During the Middle Ages, the process of formation of nationalities progressed faster, various worldviews were formed, separate subcultures and cultural centers, art schools, movements, and styles emerged. The struggle between the desire for Christian unity and the desire for national independence became a distinctive feature Western culture Middle Ages. Byzantium was, as it were, aloof from this struggle.

In history cultural development In medieval Western Europe, it is customary to distinguish the periods of the early Middle Ages (V–X centuries), the mature Middle Ages (XI–XIII centuries) and the late Middle Ages (XIV–XV centuries). In Italy and the Netherlands, the late Middle Ages correspond to the final stage of the Proto-Renaissance and Early Renaissance, which is explained by the uneven development of the economy and other institutions of civilization in different European countries.

1. Mental foundations and characteristic features of Western European medieval culture

Christianity became the spiritual basis of the Middle Ages, which affected all spheres of life. It caused main feature medieval culture - theocentrism. The system of official values ​​in this era was determined by the belief in the triune God. The divine world is the top of the cosmic and social hierarchy. Nature, society, and man were considered as a single whole, since they were considered God's creations. The meaning of the life of a medieval person was to discover the signs of the Creator of all things in his soul and the surrounding reality.

Another important feature of the medieval worldview is spiritualism. The earthly, natural world seemed to be only a reflection of the heavenly and was filled with mysterious spirits and mystical energies. This aimed at a constant search for ways to establish contact with God.

In medieval culture there was no place left for the ancient harmony of spirit and body. In official dogma, the material, bodily was opposed to the spiritual and was interpreted as something base. This view influenced the formation of a new idea of ​​​​man. On the one hand, he contained the image and likeness of God, on the other, he acted as a bearer of the carnal principle. Man is subject to devilish temptations, and they test his will. Life passes between a dazzling abyss of grace and a black abyss of destruction. Only constant improvement of spirituality and sacrificial service to God can help a person avoid hellish torment.

Heightened sensitivity, bordering on exaltation, determined an important feature of the medieval mentality. Spirituality was associated not with rational activity, but with intense emotional life, ecstatic visions and miracles, imaginary phenomena of the other world.

Another important feature of the medieval worldview is symbolism, which overcame the ancient mindset of contemplating a sensory-material form. Man strove for what was on the other side of the latter - for pure divine existence. At the same time, potentially any thing was necessarily represented, first of all, by its sign, image, symbol, which did not confuse the introduced meaning and the earthly thing, but assumed their common divine origin.

So, symbolic things had the ability to reflect divine reality, but to varying degrees. From this idea flowed the next feature of the Middle Ages - hierarchism. The natural world and social reality here were deeply hierarchical. The place of a phenomenon or object in the universal hierarchy was associated with the degree of its closeness to God.

These features of the medieval worldview also determined artistic culture, the main place in which was occupied by the attributes of the Christian cult. The goal of artistic creativity of that time was not aesthetic pleasure as such, but an appeal to God. However, Thomas Aquinas and some other religious philosophers represented God as the source of universal harmony and ideal beauty. Essential attribute medieval art, which manifested itself especially in the mature and late Middle Ages, is monumentalism. He reflected the greatness of God, in whose face man was like a grain of sand. Medieval art is characterized by the same symbolism. The religious artistic work as a whole and any of its elements were considered as signs of supernatural reality.

Medieval architecture was a unique synthesis of arts, united around a spiritual center - the cathedral, which embodied the Heavenly Jerusalem, the Kingdom of Christ, and the Universe.

Use in works of art symbols - “traces” of incessant divine providence - determined the canonicity and allegorism of medieval art. Artists had to focus on the spiritual content of the images, resorting to conventions and stylization, turning to allegories and associations. Thus, the meanings of sacred symbols were deciphered and presented in the form of clearly presented canonized moral formulas.

An important feature of medieval art is speculativeness, which led away from worldly, sensual concerns. The disembodiment of bodies and lack of interest in concrete sensory details on the icon did not distract attention from the spiritual comprehension of God. The same is true of spiritually sublime music, which freed us from the power of everyday life.

2. European culture of the early Middle Ages

During the early Middle Ages, Western European culture and civilization experienced phases of crisis and recovery. It was a time of complex, at first timid and imitative, and then increasingly confident, independent search for an integral system of values, norms, and ideals, carried out at the crossroads of Christian, barbarian and ancient traditions.

Began new era in conditions of a deep total crisis that erupted after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Medieval society found its way in an environment of economic and political chaos, among the ruins of a destroyed culture ancient world. The number of cities that recently determined the qualitative originality of ancient culture has decreased. Cities and urban residences of kings survived and slowly grew mainly along the banks of large rivers. The economy of this time was dominated by subsistence farming and an agrarian economy, and the growth of large-scale land ownership began. Trade connections between individual areas were carried out mainly along rivers and rarely became stable. Residents exchanged the most necessary goods or luxury items (salt, wine, oil, expensive fabrics, spices). Payments using money were difficult due to their scarcity in circulation. Gold coins were minted mainly to maintain the power of the overlords.

The early Middle Ages also preserved some cultural forms created by antiquity (primarily Rome). In the new era, education served primarily as a means for ensuring liturgical practice and governing the state. Some disciplines, rhetoric in particular, have completely changed their meaning. In the early Middle Ages, the latter became a field of the written rather than the spoken word, the practice of skilful drafting of business documents rather than the art of eloquence. Mathematics primarily developed counting and problem-solving skills and was least associated with understanding the essence of the world, as in Ancient Greece.

The nascent medieval theology, however, turned to ancient authors. Christianity was forced to defend its ideals, turning to a culture with a deeply developed system of intellectual traditions - with its ontology, epistemology, logic, and the developed art of polemics. Subsequently, patristics, which gravitated towards a harmonious synthesis of the Christian idea of ​​revelation and the philosophical tradition of ancient rationalism, was replaced by scholasticism (XI-XIV centuries), the main problems of which were connected purely with Christian doctrine.

IN religious art of the early Middle Ages, elements of the artistic style of the barbarians were refracted - folklore motifs, ornamentalism, fantastic images, etc.

The “animal style” was distinguished by its emphasized dynamism, in which stylized images of animals were combined with a spiral floral ornament. The image of people became widespread at the end of the 7th century. (relief from Hornhausen). Among the surviving architectural buildings of that time, the tomb of Theodoric in Ravenna (completed in the 20s of the 6th century) - an example of primitive imitation of Roman architecture - and the palace chapel in Aachen (788–805) deserve attention.

3. European culture of the mature and late Middle Ages

For Europe, the 11th century marked the beginning of a new cultural upsurge. Strengthening external borders Western world and reducing violence internal conflicts made life safer, which made it possible to switch to improving agricultural technologies, strengthening trade, and developing crafts. Urban growth occurred at an accelerated pace, accompanied by property and social differentiation of society. In the XI–XIII centuries. The main features of medieval culture finally took shape and the first shoots of the future new European cultural type arose.

One of characteristic features culture of this period became a contradiction between fragmentation, divergence in the economic, political, social and spiritual spheres of life, on the one hand, and the unifying pathos ideal images social order, proposed by religious thinkers, on the other. In the social sphere, the ideal of a single Christian society coexisted with the functioning of independent social groups and classes.

The rise of agriculture, the growth of guilds and craft corporations, and the formation of the merchant class played a decisive role in the formation of the medieval city. Large trade routes converged in medieval cities, and the surrounding fertile plains provided a surplus of agricultural products. The economic prerogative of cities was handicraft and then manufacturing production. Thanks to cities, the monetary system developed. During the mature and late Middle Ages, the prevailing type of trade in the emerging states was one that focused mainly on the local market and local sources of goods. But foreign trade and economic ties also emerged.

Thus, at the turn of the 13th century. It was no longer monasteries and knightly castles, but cities that determined the economic and cultural development of Europe. In the XIV–XV centuries. Democratic tendencies intensified in it.

Education. The new attitude to the world, which gradually took shape in the urban environment, could not but affect the intellectual culture, in which more and more secular elements appeared. New forms of education were created in cities: paid primary secular schools and universities. The first university in Europe appeared in the 12th century. in Paris on the basis of the schools of the abbeys of St. Genevieve and St. Victor.

A school in a city could be opened by a workshop, a guild, or even just a private individual. The main attention here was paid not to church doctrine, but to grammar, mathematics, rhetoric, natural science, and law. And it is important that education in schools was conducted in their native language.

Universities, which arose in the 12th–14th centuries, gave even greater impetus to the spread of education, depriving the church of its monopoly in this area. The activities of universities had three important cultural consequences. First, it gave birth to a professional class of scientists who also received the right to teach the truths of Revelation. As a result, along with church and secular power, the power of intellectuals appeared, the impact of which on spiritual culture and social life increasingly intensified. Secondly, the university fraternity affirmed forms of secular culture and a new meaning of the concept of “nobility”, consisting in aristocracy of mind and behavior. Thirdly, within the framework of medieval universities, along with the formation of an attitude towards rational comprehension of theological wisdom, the rudiments of scientific knowledge appeared.

Literature. The literature of the mature and late Middle Ages reflected the creativity of various social strata of society and nationalities and was therefore extremely diverse.

Church religious-didactic (lives of saints, parables, sermons) and edifying (example - instructive examples, entertaining stories) literature continued to be widespread. A special place in church literature was occupied by the genre of visions - stories about communication between a person, including a simple layman, and otherworldly forces.

Back in the 10th century. In France, a poetic tradition of jugglers began to take shape - wandering singer-musicians familiar with both the traditions of Latin literature and the heroic epic. In the XI–XIII centuries. there was a heyday of knightly lyrical poetry, glorifying the mighty moral power of love and military exploits. The greatest role in its development was played by the southern French troubadours, in whose poems the traditions of folk and ancient poetry coexisted. Romances of chivalry were extremely popular - great poetic works in national languages, most often inspired by folk heroic epics.

Architecture and fine arts. During the mature Middle Ages, two leading styles appeared, reflecting changes in the value orientations of medieval man - Romanesque and Gothic. The dominant art form during this period was architecture.

In medieval culture of the 11th–12th centuries. has developed romanesque style. He inherited the forms of ancient Roman and early Christian architecture. Romanesque sculpture is characterized by monumental generalization of forms, deviation from real proportions, expressiveness of poses and gestures of sacred characters.

Romanesque religious buildings represented the architectural monumental style in architecture. Here the basic techniques of sculptural and pictorial images, norms and rules for constructing artistic images, set by church aesthetics, were formed. Secular Romanesque art developed in the castles of feudal lords, which simultaneously met the requirements of defense, housing and representation, both in layout and in relation to the area (the fortress of Carcassonne in Provence, 12th–13th centuries).

In monastic complexes, the leading role belonged to the temple. Sculpture in Romanesque churches, simple in design, was located both inside and outside - on the facade framed by the portal.

Romanesque fine art was subordinated to architecture. The picturesque images, created primarily using the fresco technique, were expressive color compositions, iconographic scenes that gave the interior an impressive solemnity. Occasionally, cult themes in painting were supplemented with folklore motifs (frescoes of the Church of Saint-Savin-Gartham, France).

From the second half of the 12th century. The formation of the Gothic style began in the art of medieval Europe. The term “Gothic” appeared in the Renaissance and comes from the name of the “Goths” tribe, whose pointed dwellings resembled the steep slopes of Gothic cathedrals. The Gothic period turned out to be more complex, and the style itself became refined and decorative in comparison with the Romanesque. It was determined mainly by the culture of cities, the buildings of which lost their defensive significance. Secular construction developed (town halls, covered markets, hospitals, residential buildings). Under the influence of a new worldview, the main features of Gothic art were formed. It came close to the man. In the images of Christ, human features are emphasized, the appearance of a “formidable Judge” is replaced by the image of a “suffering horn”. The Gothic man was in an emotionally intense relationship with the imaginary sphere. In the culture of that time, interest in the beauty of the real world, earthly feelings and experiences awoke.

The main constructive innovation of Gothic architecture was the pointed arch (two arcs facing each other at an acute angle) and the pointed vault on ribs (connecting stone ribs with spacers). They increased the height of the grandiose structure and made it possible to cover spaces of any plan.

In different countries, the Gothic style had its own striking features associated with the emergence of national art schools. The largest of them are French, German and English.

The development of plastic arts in the Gothic era was inextricably linked with architecture. Sculpture enhanced the emotional perception of architecture and contributed to the visual embodiment of not only religious feelings and beliefs, but also nature deified by man.

The dominant role here belonged to round plastic and relief. Gothic sculpture is an integral part of the cathedral. It was included in the architectural composition and diversified its appearance.

Gothic proposed new principles for the synthesis of arts, which made it possible to more fully reflect a person’s emotionally heightened perception of the connection between the heavenly and real worlds, and an appeal to the earthly. She created the necessary preconditions for the emergence of the humanistic culture of the Renaissance.

4. Culture of Byzantium: stages and trends of development

A major medieval cultural and civilizational center was Byzantium, which arose in 395 in the territories of the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire. The capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, which separated from the Western, became Constantinople (now Istanbul), founded in 330 by Emperor Constantine. The state existed until 1453, when Constantinople was captured by the Turks. Byzantium, at the stage of its formation, preserved and significantly modified the traditions of ancient culture better than the western territories of Europe. Little affected by the invasions of the barbarians, it took from Rome the form of a centralized state with an emperor and the church at its head. The development of Byzantine culture in much to a greater extent than in Western European countries, it was controlled by the state. Byzantium is characterized by a slow pace of cultural transformations and the late formation of feudal relations. Until the 7th century. modified ones were stored here value bases late antique culture and civilization. The reign of Justinian (527–565) is noted in history as a grandiose attempt to restore the former greatness of Rome, the successor of which was considered the Roman Empire - Byzantium.

In the IV–VII centuries. The originality of the religion of Byzantium with its clearly expressed philosophical and contemplative attitude towards the Christian canons was already fully manifested. Byzantine civilization is characterized by an organic fusion of secular and religious power in the person of the emperor, who symbolized a single administrative principle. The confrontation between secular (imperial) and spiritual (papal) power that arose in Western Europe at times developed into open conflicts. The church organization of Byzantium was entirely regulated by the state and was completely subordinate to the emperor.

The literature of early Byzantium was of a dual nature, intricately combining at its core a Christian worldview with the post-antique pathos of citizenship and reasonable choice. Among church literature, the genre of hagiography has gained particular popularity.

The powerful rise of art in early Byzantium was associated with the reign of Justinian. Intensive construction was carried out in large cities, primarily in Constantinople. Were erected triumphal arches, palaces, aqueducts, baths, hippodromes, and water storage tanks were built. However, the main role in architecture belonged to religious buildings - temples and monastery complexes. In the architecture of the V–VII centuries. Two types of churches were used: basilica and cross-domed. The Temple of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople (532–537), a pearl of Byzantine architecture, successfully combines both architectural forms.

Fine arts and architecture of the 5th–7th centuries. combined church and secular genres. The emphasis was on monumental creations. At the same time, several local art schools operated, forming a system of pictorial images based on the teachings of the Holy Scriptures, which were later canonized by the church. The main task was to depict not a single phenomenon, not the sensory world, but its idea, while at the same time getting as close as possible to the divine prototype.

VIII century – first half of the 9th century. became a testing time for Byzantine culture and civilization, which was reconsidering its attitude towards the ancient heritage. Free craft and trade corporations were reduced, the mercenary army was abolished, and the number of cities was sharply reduced. The rewriting of ancient books lost its relevance, and only a few intellectuals still supported the traditions of ancient education. The education sector was in decline (even the patriarchal school at the Church of Hagia Sophia was closed), and the literacy rate of the population sharply decreased. At the same time, the role of patriarchs was elevated, and the Christian Church sought to extinguish the last pockets of paganism.

The literature of this period was predominantly ecclesiastical in nature. The most popular genre remained the hagiographical genre, which included, along with religious narratives themselves, scattered natural science, geographical and historical information. Apologetic hymnography was dominated by the canon with its solemn staticity and floridity.

Second half of the 9th – 13th centuries. - a period of weakening imperial power and strengthening the position of the landed aristocracy.

Economy. By the middle of the 10th century. Feudal relations finally developed in Byzantium. Unlike the West, they were based primarily on the enslavement of peasants by the state. At the same time, small communal landownership was absorbed by large feudal estates, which competed with the centralized system of state power. In Byzantium in the 11th–12th centuries, despite the growth of crafts and trade, Western-type cities with newly developed self-government and free craft guilds never appeared. Workshop production in large cities was strictly controlled by the state.

The worldview of that time combined the fading ideals of patriotism, emotional-mystical and at the same time philosophical-rational religiosity. There was renewed interest in the ancient heritage, and the works of ancient authors were again copied. Secular education was revived according to the ancient model. In the 9th century. a higher school was opened in Constantinople, led by the largest scientist of that time Leo Mathematician.

Literature. In the second half of the 9th – 13th centuries. Various types of systematic reviews have become widespread.

Architecture and fine arts. During this period, a further enrichment of the architectural style occurred. The leading role traditionally belonged to religious architecture with its large monastic complexes and majestic temples.

From the second half of the 9th century. great changes affected church painting: it became more and more humanized, but claimed to awaken universal spiritual experiences expressed through symbolic images. Laconism compositional construction, restraint of color scheme, proportionality to architecture are distinguished by painting of the 9th–13th centuries. It was at this time that a system of canonical images in churches developed.

After the devastating campaigns of the Crusaders, which destroyed Constantinople, in the 13th century. started final stage development of Byzantine culture. He is associated with the reign of the Palaiologan dynasty (1267–1453). The art of this time is characterized by expression and filigree elaboration of images (mosaics of the Kahrie Jami Church in Constantinople).

In 1453, Byzantium was conquered by Turkey, but the types of religious buildings created by its masters, systems of fresco paintings and mosaics, icon painting, and literature became widespread and developed in the art of Western Europe, the southern and western Slavs, Ancient Rus', Belarus and Transcaucasia.

Conclusion

So, the Middle Ages in Western Europe were a time of intense spiritual life, a complex and difficult search for ideological constructs that could synthesize the historical experience and knowledge of the previous millennia.

In this era, people were able to take a new path of cultural development, different from what they knew in previous times. Trying to reconcile faith and reason, building a picture of the world on the basis of the knowledge available to them and with the help of Christian dogmatism, the culture of the Middle Ages created new artistic styles, a new urban way of life, a new economy, and prepared people's consciousness for the use of mechanical devices and technology.

Contrary to the opinion of the thinkers of the Italian Renaissance, the Middle Ages left us with the most important achievements of spiritual culture, including the institutions of scientific knowledge and education. Among them, we should mention, first of all, the university as a principle. In addition, a new paradigm of thinking arose, a disciplinary structure of knowledge without which modern science would have been impossible, people were able to think and understand the world much more effectively than before. Even the fantastic recipes of alchemists played a role in this process of improving the spiritual means of thinking and the general level of culture.

Occurred in the 20th century. a revaluation of the importance of medieval culture emphasizes its special role in creating the image of Christian moral behavior. And today experts rightly note in this culture the origins of many ideological and intellectual attitudes characteristic of later eras, the prerequisites for updating the ways of knowing and the aesthetic transformation of the world. The culture of the European Middle Ages developed and consolidated many values, meanings, forms of life and creativity, which found their reincarnation in subsequent centuries.

List of used literature

1. Culturology. Tutorial/ Edited by A.A. Radugina. – M., 2001.
2. Kononenko B.I. Fundamentals of cultural studies: Course of lectures. - M., 2002.
3. Petrova M.M. Theory of culture: Lecture notes. – St. Petersburg, 2000.
4. Samokhvalova V.I. Culturology: A short course of lectures. – M., 2002.
5. Ehrengross B.A. Culturology. Textbook for universities / B.A. Ehrengross, R.G. Apresyan, E. Botvinnik. – M.: Onyx, 2007.

Topic: Culture of the European Middle Ages

1. Culture of Byzantium

3. Artistic culture Middle Ages

4. Russian culture of the Middle Ages

During the Middle Ages, it is especially important to emphasize the role of Byzantium (IV - mid-XV centuries). She remained the only custodian of Hellenistic cultural traditions. However, Byzantium significantly transformed the legacy of late antiquity, creating artistic style, already entirely belonging to the spirit and letter of the Middle Ages. Moreover, in the medieval European art it was the Byzantine that was most orthodox Christian.

The following periods are distinguished in the history of Byzantine culture:

1st period (IV - mid-VII centuries) - Byzantium becomes the successor to the Roman Empire. There is a transition from ancient to medieval culture. Proto-Byzantine culture of this period was still urban in nature, but gradually monasteries became centers of cultural life. The formation of Christian theology occurs while preserving the achievements of ancient scientific thought.

2nd period (mid-VII - mid-IX centuries) - there is a cultural decline associated with economic decline, agrarianization of cities and the loss of a number of eastern provinces and cultural centers (Antioch, Alexandria). Constantinople became the center of industrial development, trade, cultural life, the “golden gate” between East and West for the Byzantines.

3rd period (middle of the 10th-12th centuries) - a period of ideological reaction, caused by the economic and political decline of Byzantium. In 1204, the crusaders, during the 4th Crusade, carried out the division of Byzantium. Constantinople becomes the capital of a new state - the Latin Empire. The Orthodox patriarchate is replaced by the Catholic one.

The Byzantine civilization has a special place in world culture. Throughout its thousand-year existence, the Byzantine Empire, which absorbed the heritage of the Greco-Roman world and the Hellenistic East, was the center of a unique and truly brilliant culture. Byzantine culture is characterized by the flourishing of art, the development of scientific and philosophical thought, and serious successes in the field of education. During the period of the X-XI centuries. The school of secular sciences became widespread in Constantinople. Until the 13th century. Byzantium, in terms of the level of development of education, the intensity of spiritual life and the colorful sparkle of objective forms of culture, was undoubtedly ahead of all the countries of medieval Europe.

The first Byzantine concepts in the field of culture and aesthetics were formed in the IV-VI centuries. They were a fusion of the ideas of Hellenistic Neoplatonism and early medieval patristics (Gregory of Nyssa, John Chrysostom, Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite). The ideal of early Byzantine culture becomes the Christian God as the source of “absolute beauty.” In the works of Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nazianzus and Gregory of Nyssa, in the speeches of John Chrysostom, the foundation of medieval Christian theology and philosophy was laid. At the center of philosophical quests is the understanding of being as a good, which provides a kind of justification for the cosmos, and, consequently, for the world and man. In the late Byzantine period, the widest knowledge of famous philosophers, theologians, philologists, rhetoricians - George Gemistus Plitho, Dmitry Kydonis, Manuel Chrysolor, Vissarion of Nicaea, etc. - aroused the admiration of Italian humanists. Many of them became students and followers of Byzantine scientists.

The 8th - 9th centuries marked a qualitatively new stage in the development of Byzantine artistic culture. During this period, Byzantine society experienced troubled times, the source of which was the struggle for power between the capital and provincial nobility. An iconoclasm movement arose, directed against the cult of icons, which were declared a relic of idolatry. In the course of their struggle, both iconoclasts and icon-worshippers caused enormous harm to artistic culture, destroying numerous art monuments. However, this same struggle formed a new type of vision of the world - exquisite abstract symbolism with decorative patterns. The development of artistic creativity was left behind by the struggle of the iconoclasts against the sensual, glorifying Hellenistic art of the human body and physical perfection. Iconoclastic artistic representations paved the way for deeply spiritualistic art of the 10th - 11th centuries. and prepared the victory of sublime spirituality and abstract symbolism in all spheres of Byzantine culture in subsequent centuries.

Features of Byzantine culture include:

1) synthesis of Western and Eastern elements in various spheres of the material and spiritual life of society with the dominant position of Greco-Roman traditions;

2) preservation to a large extent of the traditions of ancient civilization;

3) The Byzantine Empire, in contrast to the fragmented medieval Europe, retained state political doctrines, which left its mark on various areas culture, namely: with the ever-increasing influence of Christianity, secular artistic creativity has never faded;

4) the difference between Orthodoxy and Catholicism, which was manifested in the originality of the philosophical and theological views of Orthodox theologians and philosophers of the East, in the system of Christian ethical and aesthetic values ​​of Byzantium.

Recognizing your culture as highest achievement humanity, the Byzantines consciously protected themselves from foreign influences. Only from the 11th century. they began to draw on the experience of Arab medicine and translate monuments of oriental literature. Later, interest arose in Arabic and Persian mathematics, Latin scholasticism and literature. Among encyclopedic scientists writing on to a wide circle problems - from mathematics to theology and fiction, we should highlight John of Damascus (8th century), Michael Psellus (11th century), Nikephoros Blemmides (3rd century), Theodore Metochites (14th century).

The desire for systematization and traditionalism, characteristic of Byzantine culture, were especially clearly manifested in legal science, which began with the systematization of Roman law, the compilation of codes civil law, the most significant of which is Justinian's Codification.

The contribution of Byzantine civilization to the development of world culture is invaluable. It consisted primarily in the fact that Byzantium became a “golden bridge” between Western and eastern cultures; it had a deep and lasting impact on the development of cultures in many countries of medieval Europe. The area of ​​distribution of the influence of Byzantine culture is very extensive: Sicily, Southern Italy, Dalmatia, the states of the Balkan Peninsula, Ancient Rus', Transcaucasia, North Caucasus and Crimea - all of them, to one degree or another, came into contact with Byzantine education, which contributed to the further progressive development of their cultures.

2. Features of the development of culture in the Middle Ages

Medieval culture - European culture from the 5th century. AD until the 17th century (conditionally divided into three stages: the culture of the early Middle Ages in the 5th-11th centuries; the medieval culture of the 11th-13th centuries; the culture of the late Middle Ages in the 14th-17th centuries). The beginning of the Middle Ages coincided with the withering away of Hellenic-classical, ancient culture, and the end - with its revival in modern times.

The material basis of medieval culture was feudal relations. The political sphere of the Middle Ages represented primarily the dominance of the military class - knighthood, based on the combination of land rights with political power. With the formation of centralized states, classes were formed that made up the social structure medieval society- clergy, nobility and other residents (“third estate”, people). The clergy took care of the human soul, the nobility (knighthood) was engaged in state and military affairs, the people worked. Society began to be divided into “those who work” and “those who fight.” The Middle Ages were an era of numerous wars. Only the "crusades" (1096-1270) official history totals eight.

The Middle Ages were characterized by the unification of people into various corporations: monastic and knightly orders, peasant communities, secret societies, etc. In cities, the role of such corporations was primarily played by guilds (associations of artisans by profession). In the workshop environment, a fundamentally new attitude towards work as a value was developed, and a fundamentally new idea of ​​labor as a gift of God arose.

The dominant spiritual life of the Middle Ages was religiosity, which determined the role of the church as the most important cultural institution. The Church also acted as a secular force in the person of the papacy, striving for dominance over the Christian world. The task of the church was quite complex: the church could preserve culture only by “secularization,” and it was possible to develop culture only by deepening its religiosity. This inconsistency was emphasized by the greatest Christian thinker Augustine “The Blessed” (354-430) in his work “On the City of God” (413), where he showed the history of mankind as an eternal struggle between two cities - the earthly city (a community based on secular statehood, on self-love, brought to contempt for God) and the City of God (spiritual community, built on love for God, brought to self-contempt). Augustine put forward the idea that faith and reason are only two various types activity of one type of thinking. Therefore, they do not exclude, but complement each other.

However, in the XIV century. A radical thought, substantiated by William of Ockham (1285-1349), triumphed: there is and cannot be in principle anything in common between faith and reason, philosophy and religion. Therefore, they are completely independent of each other and should not control each other.

Medieval science acts as an understanding of the authority of the data of the Bible. At the same time, a scholastic ideal of knowledge is emerging, where rational knowledge and logical proof, again placed at the service of God and the church, acquire a high status. The rapprochement of science with teaching contributed to the formation of the education system (XI-XII centuries). Appears large number translations from Arabic and Greek - books on mathematics, astronomy, medicine, etc. They become a stimulus for intellectual development. That's when they are born higher schools, and then universities. The first universities appeared at the beginning of the 13th century. (Bologna, Paris, Oxford, Montpellier). By 1300, there were already 18 universities in Europe, which had become the most important cultural centers. Universities of the late Middle Ages were built on the Parisian model, with four “classical” faculties required: arts, theology, law and medicine.

Medieval European culture covers the period from the fall of the Roman Empire to the active formation of the culture of the Renaissance and divides the culture early period(V-XI centuries) and culture classical Middle Ages(XII-XIV centuries). The appearance of the term “Middle Ages” is associated with the activities of Italian humanists of the 15th-16th centuries, who, by introducing this term, sought to separate the culture of their era - the culture of the Renaissance - from the culture of previous eras. The Middle Ages brought with it new economic relations, a new type of political system, as well as global changes in people's worldview.

The entire culture of the early Middle Ages had a religious overtones

The basis of the medieval picture of the world was images and interpretations of the Bible. The starting point for explaining the world was the idea of ​​a complete and unconditional opposition of God and nature, Heaven and Earth, soul and body. The man of the Middle Ages imagined and understood the world as an arena of confrontation between good and evil, as a kind of hierarchical system, including God, angels, people, and otherworldly forces of darkness.

Along with the strong influence of the church, the consciousness of medieval man continued to remain deeply magical. This was facilitated by the very nature of medieval culture, filled with prayers, fairy tales, myths, and magic spells. In general, the cultural history of the Middle Ages is a history of the struggle between church and state. The position and role of art in this era were complex and contradictory, but nevertheless, throughout the entire period of development of European medieval culture, there was a search for the semantic support of the spiritual community of people.

All classes of medieval society recognized the spiritual leadership of the church, but nevertheless, each of them developed its own special culture, in which it reflected its moods and ideals.

1. The main periods of development of the Middle Ages.

The beginning of the Middle Ages is associated with the great migration of peoples that began at the end of the 4th century. The territory of the Western Roman Empire was invaded by Vandals, Goths, Huns and other nationalities. After the collapse in 476 The Western Roman Empire formed a number of short-lived states on its territory, which consisted of foreign tribes mixed with the indigenous population, which consisted mainly of Celts and the so-called Romans. The Franks settled in Gaul and Western Germany, the Visigoths in northern Spain, the Osgoths in northern Italy, and the Anglo-Saxons in Britain. The barbarian peoples who created their states on the ruins of the Roman Empire found themselves either in a Roman or Romanized environment. However, the culture of the ancient world experienced a deep crisis during the period of the barbarian invasion, and this crisis was aggravated by the barbarians introducing their mythological thinking and worship of the elemental forces of nature. All this was reflected in the cultural process of the early Middle Ages.

Medieval culture developed in line with the period of early (V-XIII centuries) feudalism in the countries of Western Europe, the formation of which was accompanied by the transition from barbarian empires to the classical states of medieval Europe. This was a period of serious social and military upheaval.

At the stage of late feudalism (XI-XII centuries), crafts, trade, and city life had a rather low level of development. The dominance of feudal lords - landowners - was undivided. The figure of the king was decorative in nature, and did not personify strength and state power. However, from the end of the 11th century. (especially France) the process of strengthening royal power begins and centralized feudal states are gradually created, in which the feudal economy rises, contributing to the formation of the cultural process.

The Crusades carried out at the end of this period were important. These campaigns contributed to the acquaintance of Western Europe with the rich culture of the Arab East and accelerated the growth of crafts.

During the second development of the mature (classical) European Middle Ages (11th century), there was a further growth of the productive forces of feudal society. A clear division is established between city and countryside, and intensive development of crafts and trade occurs. Royal power assumes significant importance. This process was facilitated by the elimination of feudal anarchy. The royal power was supported by knighthood and wealthy citizens. A characteristic feature of this period is the emergence of city-states, for example, Venice and Florence.

2. Features of the art of medieval Europe.

The development of medieval art includes the following three stages:

1.pre-Romanesque art (V- Xcenturies),

Which is divided into three periods: early Christian art, the art of the barbarian kingdoms and the art of the Carolingian and Ottonian empires.

IN early Christian During this period Christianity became the official religion. The appearance of the first Christian churches dates back to this time. Separate buildings of a centric type (round, octagonal, cruciform), called baptisteries or baptisteries. The interior decoration of these buildings were mosaics and frescoes. They reflected all the main features of medieval painting, although they were greatly divorced from reality. Symbolism and convention prevailed in the images, and the mysticism of the images was achieved through the use of such formal elements as enlarged eyes, disembodied images, prayer poses, and the use of different scales in the depiction of figures according to the spiritual hierarchy.

Barbarian Art played a positive role in the development of the ornamental and decorative direction, which later became the main part of the artistic creativity of the classical Middle Ages. And which no longer had a close connection with ancient traditions.

A characteristic feature of art Carolingian and Ottonian empires is a combination of ancient, early Christian, barbarian and Byzantine traditions, which are most clearly manifested in the ornament. The architecture of these kingdoms is based on Roman designs and includes centric stone or wooden temples, the use of mosaics and frescoes in the interior decoration of the temples.

A monument of pre-Romanesque architecture is the Chapel of Charlemagne in Aachen, created around 800. During the same period, the development of monastery construction was actively underway. In the Carolingian Empire, 400 new monasteries were built and 800 existing monasteries were expanded.

2. Romanesque art (XI- XIIcenturies)

It arose during the reign of Charlemagne. This style of art is characterized by a semicircular vaulted arch that came from Rome. Instead of wooden coverings, stone ones, usually having a vaulted shape, begin to predominate. Painting and sculpture were subordinated to architecture and were mainly used in temples and monasteries. Sculptural images were brightly colored, and monumental and decorative painting, on the contrary, was represented as temple paintings of restrained color. An example of this style is the Church of Mary on the island of Laak in Germany. Italian architecture occupies a special place in Romanesque architecture, which, thanks to the strong ancient traditions present in it, immediately stepped into the Renaissance.

The main function of Romanesque architecture is defense. In the architecture of the Romanesque era, precise mathematical calculations were not used, however, thick walls, narrow windows and massive towers, being stylistic features of architectural structures, simultaneously carried a defensive function, allowing the civilian population to take refuge in the monastery during feudal strife and wars. This is explained by the fact that the formation and strengthening of the Romanesque style took place in the era of feudal fragmentation and its motto is the saying “My home is my fortress.”

In addition to religious architecture, secular architecture was also actively developing; an example of this is the feudal castle - house - tower of a rectangular or multifaceted shape.

3. Gothic art (XII- XVcenturies)

It arose as a result of urban development and emerging urban culture. The cathedral becomes the symbol of medieval cities, gradually losing its defensive functions. The stylistic changes in the architecture of this era were explained not only by changes in the functions of buildings, but by the rapid development of construction technology, which by that time was already based on precise calculations and verified design. Abundant convex details - statues, bas-reliefs, hanging arches were the main decorations of the buildings, both inside and outside. The world masterpieces of Gothic architecture are Notre Dame Cathedral and Milan Cathedral in Italy.

Gothic is also used in sculpture. Three-dimensional, diverse plastic forms, portrait individuality, and real anatomy of figures appear.

Monumental Gothic painting is mainly represented by stained glass. Window openings are significantly increased. Which now serve not only for lighting, but more for decoration. Thanks to glass duplication, the finest nuances of color are conveyed. Stained glass windows are beginning to acquire more and more realistic elements. The French stained glass windows of Chartres and Rouen were especially famous.

The Gothic style also begins to predominate in book miniatures, a significant expansion of the scope of its application occurs, and mutual influence of stained glass and miniatures occurs. The art of book miniatures was one of the greatest achievements of Gothic art. This type of painting evolved from the "classical" style to realism.

Among the most outstanding achievements of Gothic book miniatures are the psalter of Queen Ingeborg and the psalter of Saint Louis. A remarkable monument of the German school of the early 14th century. is the “Manesse Manuscript”, which is a collection of the most famous songs of the German Minesingers, decorated with portraits of singers, scenes of tournaments and court life, and coats of arms.

Literature and music of the Middle Ages.

During the period of mature feudalism, along with and as an alternative to church literature, which had priority, secular literature. Thus, the most widespread and even some approval of the church was received by knightly literature, which included the knightly epic, romance, poetry of French troubadours and lyrics of German minisingers. They sang the war for the Christian faith and glorified the feat of chivalry in the name of this faith. An example of the chivalric epic of France is the Song of Roland. Its plot was the campaigns of Charlemagne in Spain, and the main character was Count Roland.

At the end of the 7th century. Under the patronage of Charlemagne, a book-writing workshop was founded, where a special Gospel was produced.

In the 12th century. Knightly novels written in the prose genre appeared and quickly became widespread. They told about the various adventures of the knights.

In contrast to the chivalric romance, urban literature is developing. A new genre is being formed - a poetic short story, which contributes to the formation of townspeople as a single whole.

During the development of Gothic, changes also occurred in music. The art of the Celts represented a separate group in the music of the Middle Ages. The court singers of the Celts were bards who performed heroic songs - ballads, satirical, fighting and other songs to the accompaniment of a string instrument - moles.

Since the end of the 11th century. In the south of France, the musical and poetic creativity of troubadours began to spread. Their songs glorified knightly love and heroic deeds during the Crusades. The creativity of the troubadours evoked many imitations, the most fruitful being the German minnesang. The songs of the Minnesingers - "singers of love" - ​​were not only the glorification of beautiful ladies, but also the glorification of influential dukes. Minnesingers served in the courts of rulers, participated in numerous competitions, and traveled throughout Europe. The heyday of their creativity came in the 12th century, but already in the 14th century. they were replaced by Meistersingers, or “singing masters,” united in professional guilds. The development of these vocal workshops marked a new stage in medieval singing art.

In the 9th century. there was polyphony, but by the end of the 11th century. voices are becoming more independent. With the advent of polyphony in Catholic churches, an organ becomes necessary. The development of professional church polyphony was greatly facilitated by numerous singing schools at large European monasteries.

XIII century in the history of music is called the century of old art, while the art of the 14th century. is usually called new, and it was at this time that the musical art of the Renaissance began to revive.

Conclusion.

The most important feature of European medieval culture is the special role of Christian doctrine and the Christian church. Only the church for many centuries remained the only social institution uniting all European countries, tribes and states. It was she who had a huge influence on the formation of people’s religious worldview and spread her main values ​​and ideas.

All classes of medieval society recognized the spiritual kinship of the church, but nevertheless, each of them developed its own special culture, in which it reflected its moods and ideals. The dominant class of secular feudal lords in the Middle Ages was knighthood. It was the knightly culture that included a complex ritual of customs, manners, secular, court and military knightly entertainment, of which knightly tournaments were especially popular. The knightly culture created its own folklore, its own songs, poems, and in its depths a new literary genre arose - the knightly romance. Love lyrics occupied a large place.

With all the variety of artistic means and stylistic features, the art of the Middle Ages also has some common features: religious character, because the church was the only principle uniting the scattered kingdoms; the leading place was given to architecture. Nationality, because the people themselves were the creator and spectator; the emotional beginning is deep psychologism, the task of which was to convey the intensity of religious feeling and the drama of individual plots.

Along with the dominance of Christian morality and the comprehensive power of the church, which manifested itself in all spheres of life in medieval society, including art and culture, nevertheless, this era was a unique and interesting stage in the development of European culture and civilization. Some elements of modern civilization were laid down precisely in the Middle Ages, which in many ways prepared the age of the Renaissance and Enlightenment.

Each period of historical and cultural development has its own worldview, its own ideas about nature, time and space, the order of everything that exists, about the relationship of people to each other, i.e. what can be called pictures of the world. They are formed partly spontaneously, partly purposefully, within the framework of religion, philosophy, science, art, and ideology. Pictures of the world are formed on the basis of a certain way of life of people, become part of it and begin to have a strong impact on it. Medieval man proceeded from the picture of the world developed by Christianity, or more precisely, its Western form, called Catholicism.

The term “Catholicism” comes from the Greek words “kat” (by) and “hole” (whole, whole). In the Christian Creed, compiled in the 4th century, the church is called one (unique), holy, Catholic (in Church Slavonic - cathedral) and apostolic. The Church is Catholic (conciliar), since it has its followers in all countries of the world and contains in its dogmas the fullness of the truth, the same for all Christians. After the division of Christianity in 1054 into Western and Eastern, Roman Catholic and the Greek Catholic Church, and the latter more often began to be called Orthodox as a sign of the constant confession of the right faith. What is the significance of the Catholic Church?

Christianity is a religion of salvation. For him, the essence of the history of the world is the falling away of humanity (in the person of Adam and Eve) from God, which subjugated man to the power of sin, evil, death, and the subsequent return to the Creator of the prodigal son who realized his fall. This return is led by God's chosen descendants of Abraham, with whom God enters into a "covenant" (agreement) and gives them a "law" (rules of behavior). The chain of Old Testament righteous men and prophets turns into a ladder ascending to God. But even guided from above, even a holy person cannot be completely cleansed, and then the incredible happens: God incarnates, he himself becomes a man, or rather a God-man, by virtue of his miraculous birth “from the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary”, free from sin. God the Word, the Savior, the Son of God appears as the Son of Man, a preacher from Galilee and voluntarily accepts a shameful death on the cross. He descends into hell, frees the souls of those who did good, resurrects on the third day, appears to the disciples, and soon then ascends to heaven. A few more days later, the Holy Spirit descends on the apostles (Pentecost) and gives them the strength to fulfill the covenant of Jesus - to preach the Gospel (“good news”) to all nations. Christian evangelism combines ethics based on love for one's neighbor with the feat of faith, which leads through the “narrow gates” to the Kingdom of Heaven. Its goal is the deification of the believer, i.e. the transition to eternal life with God is achieved through the assistance (synergy) of human efforts and God's grace.

How can a Christian be sure of his salvation? How to maintain the right faith? This is where the role of the church comes to the fore. The Church is the bearer of religious and moral tradition, passed from Christ to the apostles, and then to their disciples; it is also the sphere of the real presence of Christ, who gives the infallibility of faith. The creation of a doctrine about the church and its organization became the most important tasks for Christianity. They became more complex as the new religion spread among the peoples of the Roman Empire. It was necessary to repel attacks on the church from the outside, fight heresies and schisms within, and adapt to new conditions. Over the 3-4 centuries, extensive Christian literature appeared, controversial issues were resolved at congresses of bishops - councils, where representatives of the East and West were present. For Western churches associated with the areas of Latin culture and language, the works and activities of the North African native Aurelius Augustine (354-430) were of particular importance.

The son of a provincial aristocrat indifferent to religion and a deeply religious Christian, Augustine seemed to have made his way from father to mother. A brilliant orator, teacher of rhetoric with plans for a public career, philosopher, Christian hermit, priest and, finally, bishop of the African city of Hippias, Augustine experiences a fascination with ancient culture, the philosophy of Plato and comes to Christianity, becoming its defender against pagans, heretics and schismatics. Augustine’s focus is on the problem of evil in man and the fight against evil, the cause of which he initially considered matter, the flesh. Augustine the Christian believes that God created man righteous, but with a will free for good and evil. Adam and Eve abused their freedom, sinned, stained their soul with pride and selfishness, and the fallen soul infected the body, which became its master from the servant of the soul. The destiny of the descendants of Adam is to be in the power of the devil who seduced them, to carry within themselves original sin, with early childhood adding to it the sins of his fellow tribesmen and his own. The human will became capable only of evil that was not created by God. It is not something that really exists, but the action of the free will of primordially pure angels and people who wished to move away from the Creator. So, evil is only the absence of good, removal from it.

God's mercy opened the path of salvation for people through the redeeming power of the incarnation, suffering and death of Christ. By the way, Augustine had his own vision of the dogma of the trinity of God: Lover (Father), Beloved (Son) and Love (Holy Spirit), which, after the ascension of Christ, the Father and Son together send to the church. Salvation does not depend on the will and merits of man, but is conditioned by grace, the action of God. But justification by grace does not apply to everyone. God, in his omniscience, knew that few would take advantage of His gifts, and predestined a minority destined for bliss, while leaving the sinful majority to perish.

So, victory over evil is possible only through the subordination of reason to the authority of faith, the bearer of which is the church. Again and again Augustine repeats that neither men, nor angels, nor even the Gospel can be trusted unless their words are supported by the authority of the church. Only she teaches the teachings of Christ and the apostles intact, only she has the right to forgive sins and dispose of the merits of the saints. The preaching of the church is essentially the same for all people and nations; it is universal and Catholic. The unity of the church, the “City of God,” which leads man to the peace of the Heavenly Kingdom, is opposed by the multiplicity of earthly kingdoms, heresies, and sects ruled by the devil. Standing above all power, the “City of God” wanders the earth until the Last Judgment. And although he attracts love to himself, he also has the right to use coercion, including the power of the state, to force the lost to submit. Augustine recognized the Pope as the head of the universal church, although he opposed the interference of popes in the affairs of African bishops.

The power of authority proclaimed by Augustine was embodied in the supremacy of the Roman pontiff over church and state. In the 8th century on the basis of the forged document “Donation of Constantine”, the pope received secular power over Italy in the 9th century. the false “Isidore Decretals” declared that not only metropolitans and bishops, but even councils and emperors must obey the pope unquestioningly. The Pope is the earthly head of the church and the vicar of Christ on earth; the “prince of the apostles” Peter himself speaks through his lips. The dogma of the infallibility of popes in matters of faith and morals was officially adopted in 1870, but this idea belongs entirely to the Middle Ages. “The Avignon Captivity of the Popes” (1308–1377), the great schism of the Catholic Church (1378–1409), the strengthening of royal power, anti-papal councils (1409–1438), and finally, the Reformation of the 16th–17th centuries. greatly weakened the power of the papacy, but did not force it to abandon its claims.

The same principle of the dominance of authority is visible in the special position of the Catholic clergy and monasticism. Catholicism divides the church into heavenly, triumphant and earthly, militant, and the latter into “learners” and “taught”. Celibacy (celibacy) of the non-monastic clergy was intended not only to make church property non-inheritable, but also to more sharply distinguish clergy from laity. For this purpose, the main sacrament of Christianity, the Eucharist, was also changed. The clergy began to receive communion with bread and wine, and the laity with bread alone. Finally, Augustine's idea of ​​forcing heretics to obey was used in organizing the Inquisition - special tribunals that searched for and condemned heretics.

An important difference Catholicism From Orthodoxy came the addition to the Creed of the thesis about the procession of the Holy Spirit not “from the Father,” but “from the Father and the Son.” Spread throughout the churches of Spain and France, this increase was approved by the pope in 1019. Two other purely Catholic dogmas - about Purgatory and the non-involvement of the Mother of God in original sin (finally approved only in 1854) stemmed from the Augustinian doctrine of sin. It was seen as a kind of man’s debt to God, which man can “pay off” with merit and even in excess. These “super-due merits” are at the disposal of God, the Church and the Pope. In their account, sinners who did not have time to repent during life can be cleansed after death - in Purgatory. The Mother of God, “in view of the future merits of Christ,” was initially freed from original sin. The doctrine of “extraordinary merit” also led to the trade in indulgences - letters of remission of sins. The massive sale of indulgences in the interests of the papacy caused great outrage and became one of the reasons for the Reformation.

Medieval pictures of the world amazingly combine ideas about the unity and duality of the world, created and governed by one God, but split into Heaven and Earth. The man of that era persistently and sometimes painfully searches in these things for symbols, allegories of the otherworldly, the miraculous, but truly real. Therefore, in literature and art, fantasy prevailed over observation, the general over the particular, the eternal over the temporary. The Middle Ages sought to bring the divine, universal order to Earth. Universalism found its most complete expression in the culture of the intellectual elite, the most educated part of medieval society.

Education in the Middle Ages is directly related to ancient models. As in the late Roman schools, it was based on the seven “liberal arts” (artes liberales) - a series of disciplines divided into two levels: the trivium (preparatory) and the quadrivium. The trivium included: grammar - the ability to read, understand what is read and write; dialectics is the art of arguing through arguments and their refutations, and rhetoric, which teaches how to make speeches. The quadrivium consisted of arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy. These sciences were thought of as teachings about numerical relationships that underlie world harmony. Education was conducted in Latin only in the 14th century. schools teaching in national languages ​​appeared.

Until the 11th century. Very few schools were located at the courts of barbarian kings, bishops' departments, churches and monasteries. They trained mainly church ministers. With the growth of cities, secular urban private and municipal schools emerged, where wandering students studied - vagantes, or goliards, who came from the urban and knightly environment, the lower clergy. Often the teacher and a group of students wandered from place to place. Peter Abelard (12th century) paints a vivid picture of such wanderings. He taught in cities, monasteries, and even in the wilderness, where students had to work the land themselves. By the 12th century. cathedral schools in the largest centers of Europe: Bologna, Montpellier, Paris, Oxford, Salerno, etc. - are turning into universities (from the Latin “universitas” - totality, community).

Universities had legal, administrative, and financial autonomy, which was granted to them by special decrees of sovereigns and popes. The relative independence of the university was combined with strict regulation and discipline of internal life. Two corporations - teachers and students, elected officials: rectors, deans, etc.; Community communities played a major role in both corporations.

The university was usually divided into four faculties: theological (theological), law, medicine and the faculty of the seven liberal arts (artistic). The latter was a necessary preparatory step for any of the other three. To enter the higher faculty, you had to take a course in science at the artistic faculty and get here academic degrees first a bachelor's degree and then a master's degree. They were awarded based on the results of debates in which teachers and students participated. At the highest faculties, the master corresponded to a very honorable doctorate: theology, law or medicine. Many masters of liberal arts were outstanding logicians, mathematicians, and astronomers. Almost all teachers were priests or monks. The theological faculty enjoyed special respect.

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MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE REPUBLIC OF TATARSTAN

Almetyevsk State Oil Institute

Department of Enterprise Economics

CONTROLJOB

on the topic: "Culture of the European Middle Ages"

Completedstudentgroups

GorshkovA. N.

Almetyevsk 2014

Content

• Introduction
• Conclusion

Introduction

Middle Ages - important stage development of European culture. This is a period, the beginning of which coincided with the withering away of Hellenic-classical, ancient culture, and the end with its revival in modern times. It was a complex, diverse, contradictory culture, just as medieval society was a complex hierarchical formation.

Medieval culture is based on the traditions of the Western Roman Empire, representing the so-called “Romanesque beginning.” Main in cultural heritage Rome are law, science, art, philosophy, Christianity. All these traditions were adopted during the struggle of the Romans with the barbarians and influenced their own culture of the pagan tribal life of the Franks, Britons, Saxons and other tribes of Western Europe, representing the so-called “Germanic beginning” of medieval culture. As a result of the interaction of these principles, a clash of two cultures arose - ancient and barbarian, which gave a powerful impetus to the formation and development of Western European medieval culture itself.

The purpose of this test is to examine the development of culture in the European Middle Ages.

Based on the goal, the following tasks will be considered:

give a general description of European medieval culture;

consider Christian consciousness as the basis of medieval mentality;

explore medieval science and education;

explore medieval art and architecture.

1. General characteristics of the emergence and development of European medieval culture

Western European medieval culture represents a qualitatively new stage in the development of European culture, following antiquity and covering more than a thousand-year period (V - XV centuries).

The transition from ancient civilization to the Middle Ages was due, firstly, to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire as a result of the general crisis of the slave-owning mode of production and the associated collapse of the entire ancient culture. Secondly, the Great Migration of Peoples (from the 4th to the 7th centuries), during which dozens of tribes rushed to conquer new lands.

Three stages can be distinguished in the development of Western European medieval society:

early Middle Ages (V-X centuries) - the process of folding the main structures characteristic of the Middle Ages is underway;

the classical Middle Ages (XI-XV centuries) - the time of maximum development of medieval feudal institutions;

late Middle Ages (XV-XVII centuries) - a new capitalist society begins to form.

The formation of medieval culture occurred as a result of the contradictory process of the collision of two cultures - ancient and barbarian, accompanied, on the one hand, by violence, the destruction of ancient cities, the loss of the outstanding achievements of ancient culture, on the other hand, by the interaction and gradual fusion of Roman and barbarian cultures.

The most important factor that determined the process of formation of European culture was Christianity. Christianity became not only its spiritual basis, but also the integrating principle that allows us to talk about Western European culture as a single integral culture.

So, medieval culture is the result of a complex, contradictory synthesis of ancient traditions, the culture of barbarian peoples and Christianity.

However, the influence of these three principles of medieval culture on its character was not, and could not be, equivalent. The social basis of medieval culture was feudal relations, which were characterized by:

conditionality of land ownership: the feudal lord “held” the fief - land with peasants on the right of ownership, received from a higher feudal lord, who was also a vassal of the feudal lord occupying a higher level in the political hierarchy;

personal and economic subordination of the peasants to the “holders of the land.” The main forms of dependence are patronage and serfdom;

mutual obligations of lord and vassal, strict unity of rights and obligations.

On the basis of feudal land ownership, two

The main poles of the sociocultural field of medieval culture were feudal lords (secular and spiritual) and feudal-dependent producers - peasants, which, in turn, led to the existence of two poles of the Middle Ages:

scientific culture of the spiritual and intellectual elite.

the culture of the “silent majority” (the culture of the common people, who are mostly illiterate).

Medieval culture was formed under the following conditions:

the dominance of the natural economy, which existed until approximately the 13th century, when it began to turn into a commodity-money economy as a result of the growth and strengthening of cities;

culture european middle ages christian

a closed feudal fiefdom - seigneury, which is the main economic, judicial and political unit;

weak central government;

feudal fragmentation, which gave rise to endless wars, death, and destruction.

2. Christian consciousness is the basis of medieval mentality

The most important feature of medieval culture is the special role of the Christian religion and the Christian church. It acts as a new ideological support of consciousness, an expression of the request for a holy, pure life that arises in a person tired of the carnal activism of late Roman antiquity. Christianity was the “golden mean”, a compromise of spirit and flesh, for Christ is resurrected as a bodily being, having flesh and blood.

In the conditions of the general decline of culture immediately after the destruction of the Roman Empire, only the church for many centuries remained the only social institution common to all countries, tribes and states of Europe. The church was the dominant political institution, but even more significant was the influence that the church had directly on the consciousness of the population.

The medieval worldview and attitude, which was based on Christian consciousness, has the following features:

Two-worldness.

The perception and explanation of the world comes from the idea of ​​two-worldliness - the division of the world into the real and the otherworldly, the opposition in it of God and nature, Heaven and Earth, “above” and “below”, spirit and flesh, good and evil, eternal and temporary, sacred and sinful .

Symbolism.

The symbol played a huge role. Everything, one way or another, was a sign, all objects were just signs of entities. The Bible itself was filled with secret symbols that hid the true meaning. Medieval man viewed the world around him as a system of symbols, which, if correctly interpreted, could comprehend the divine meaning. The Church taught that the highest knowledge is revealed not in concepts, but in images and symbols.

Versatility.

At the heart of medieval universalism is the idea of ​​God as the bearer of a universal, universal principle. The spiritual universalism of Christianity has formed a spiritual community of people - fellow believers. Christianity affirmed the universality of man, treating him, as already noted, regardless of ethnicity and social status, as the earthly incarnation of God, called upon to strive for spiritual perfection (although this idea was in deep contradiction with the class structure of society). The idea of ​​the religious unity of the world, the predominance of the universal over the individual, transient, played a huge role.

Traditionalism.

The older, the more authentic. Innovation is pride; deviation from the archetype was seen as moving away from the truth. Hence the limitation of creative freedom within the framework of a theologically normalized worldview.

Integrity.

The worldview of medieval man was characterized by integrity. All areas of knowledge - science, philosophy, aesthetic thought, etc. - represented an indivisible unity. Philosophy and aesthetics set the goal of understanding God, history was seen as the implementation of the Creator's plans.

The holistic embrace of everything that exists, characteristic of the medieval mentality, was expressed in the fact that already in the early Middle Ages, culture gravitated towards encyclopedicism, the universality of knowledge.

Didacticism.

Figures of medieval culture were primarily preachers and teachers of theology. The main thing in their activity is to convey the greatness of the divine plan to other people. Therefore, special attention is paid to the art of argumentation, discussions, etc.

Historicism.

The historicism of the Middle Ages is determined by the Christian idea of ​​​​the uniqueness of events, their singularity, caused by the uniqueness of the fact of the appearance of Christ as the beginning of history. The Middle Ages were imbued with the expectation of the Last Judgment, the desire for the ultimate goal, the fate of man, the world as a whole.

3. Spiritual culture of the Middle Ages under the omnipotence of the church - science and education

Medieval science was subject to a strictly defined hierarchical order. Medieval science is divided into lower, based on human cognitive abilities, and higher, the custodian of Divine revelation. The highest place in the hierarchy of its spheres was given to philosophy, the purpose of which was seen as proving the truth of the Christian doctrine. The “lower” sciences (astronomy, geometry, mathematics, historical knowledge, etc.) were subordinate to and served philosophy.

In conditions of theocratism (the dominance of religious views), theology became the most developed form of theoretical thinking. In the 11th century It was theology that gave birth to such a phenomenon of medieval science as scholasticism - a philosophy inextricably linked with theology, but not identical to it. Scholasticism is, first of all, a method of knowing God and the world he created. She proceeded from the conviction that faith and knowledge, revelation and reason can be reconciled with each other, and, relying on them, one can comprehend God and the world. The essence of scholasticism was the understanding of Christian dogma from a rationalistic position using logical methods.

Representatives of this movement are Northern Boethius, John Scotus Eriugena, Roger Bacon, Thomas Aquinas and others.

The pinnacle of medieval scholasticism was the work of Thomas Aquinas (13th century). By affirming the harmony of reason and faith, he was able to carry out a synthesis of the philosophy of Aristotle and Christian dogma.

Medieval education was mainly religious education. Since the early Middle Ages, the entire education system was controlled by the church. In cathedral monastery schools, students read and commented on the Bible, the works of the church fathers, and also studied the “seven liberal arts” (grammar, dialectics, rhetoric, arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy - academic disciplines, established in late antiquity). Until the end of the 9th century. all schools were in the hands of the church (both future priests and young men not intended for a church career were trained in them). However, in the second half of the 11th century. Secular schools appeared in cities, universities emerged, which became centers for the development of scientific thought of their time. The first university was opened in Bologna (1088), later in Paris (1160), Oxford (1167), Cambridge (1209). Teaching at universities was carried out on Latin, which allowed students from all over Europe to study at any university. The Church supervised teaching at universities and expelled unsuitable teachers.

The university as an institution of scientific knowledge and education is an outstanding achievement of medieval culture.

4. Art of the Middle Ages: Romanesque and Gothic styles, architecture, icon painting. Medieval cathedral as a model of the world

Artistic creativity was also strongly influenced by the church. The artists of the Middle Ages paid their main attention to the otherworldly, Divine world; their art was considered as the Bible for the illiterate, as a means of introducing man to God and comprehending his essence. Since the language of the Bible and worship was Latin, unfamiliar to most laypeople, the sculptural and pictorial images had a didactic meaning - to convey to believers the foundations of Christian dogma. In the temple, the entire Christian teaching unfolded before the eyes of a medieval man. The idea of ​​the sinfulness of the world was reflected by the leading plot in the design of churches, sculptures and reliefs - scenes of the Last Judgment and the Apocalypse. Looking at the cathedral, a medieval person could, as it were, read Holy Scripture in the images depicted there.

Strictly following the universal church canons, medieval artists were called upon to demonstrate divine beauty in figurative form. The aesthetic ideal of medieval art was the opposite of ancient art, reflecting the Christian understanding of beauty. The idea of ​​the superiority of the spirit over the physical and carnal is represented in the asceticism of the images of monumental painting and sculpture, their severity and detachment from the outside world.

The most important feature of medieval art is symbolism. A sculptural or pictorial image is, first of all, a symbol, a certain religious idea captured in stone or paint. The main genre was icon painting, which is seen as an emotional connection with God, accessible to illiterate people.

The entire figurative structure of medieval art is symbolic (the long, almost sexless bodies of the apostles and saints express the idea of ​​the spiritual principle overcoming sinful matter - the flesh).

The diversity of figures is another feature of medieval art. The size of the figures was determined by the hierarchical significance of what was depicted (which, by the way, made it easy to “recognize” the characters depicted). Christ is always greater than the apostles and angels, who, in turn, are greater than ordinary laymen.

Western Europe during the Early Middle Ages was characterized by the Romanesque style, which became widespread from the end of the 10th century.

The contrast between the heavy, squat outlines of the cathedral and the spiritual expression of its images reflected the Christian formula of beauty - the idea of ​​​​the superiority of the spiritual over the physical. The Romanesque cathedral was a symbol of the stronghold of the human spirit in art. Architecture, paintings, door reliefs necessarily complemented each other, forming a unity based on the subordination of the small to the large, reflecting the principle of the medieval hierarchy. The paintings of the Romanesque church create a special closed world, where the layman became a participant in the depicted scenes. Drama and expressiveness, intense spiritual expressiveness of pictorial images, characteristic of Romanesque painting (scenes of the Last Judgment, the struggle between angels and the devil for human souls- a common theme of temple paintings) had a huge emotional impact, reflecting the idea of ​​​​the sinfulness of the world, the idea of ​​redemption and salvation. The flat, two-dimensional image of paintings and sculptures of the Romanesque style, the generality of forms, the violation of proportions, the monumental significance of the images symbolized the timeless, eternal in the understanding of the world.

Secular buildings of the Romanesque style are distinguished by their massive forms, narrow window openings, and significant height of the towers, as they served as fortifications. Temple buildings are also characterized by massive features, covering the inside with wall paintings - frescoes, and the outside - with brightly colored reliefs. The main types of Romanesque buildings that have survived to this day are a knight's castle, a church, and a monastery ensemble.

Outstanding monuments of Romanesque architecture include the Notre Dame Cathedral in Poitiers, the cathedrals in Toulouse, Orcinval, Arne (France), the cathedrals in Oxford, Winchester, Norwich (England), and the cathedral in Lund (Sweden). The Romanesque style is widely represented in decorative arts in illustrating manuscripts (book miniatures, drawings of capital letters are often “populated” fantastic characters, characteristic of Romanesque architecture).

Romanesque art, at first glance, seems crude and primitive in comparison with contemporary Byzantine art or the Gothic art that follows it. Meanwhile, the creators of the Romanesque style - architects, sculptors, artists - having mastered and developed new construction and art crafts, managed to bring to life grand vision- create structures that symbolize the stronghold of the human spirit in art.

By the end of the 12th century. Romanesque style gives way to Gothic.

It flourished in the XIII-XV centuries. V. This is the period when urban culture begins to play an increasingly important role in medieval culture. In all areas of life in medieval society, the importance of the secular, rational principle increases. The Church is gradually losing its dominant position in the spiritual sphere.

With the development of urban culture, on the one hand, church restrictions in the field of art began to weaken, and on the other hand, trying to make maximum use of the ideological and emotional power of art for its own purposes, the church finally developed its attitude towards art. Medieval scholastics argued that art is an imitation of nature. The scholastics did not deny the emotional power of art, its ability to evoke admiration.

The design of the Gothic cathedral revealed new ideas of the Catholic Church, the increased self-awareness of the urban strata, and new ideas about the world. The dynamic upward thrust of all forms of the cathedral reflected the Christian idea of ​​the aspiration of the soul of the righteous to heaven, where it is promised eternal bliss. Religious subjects retain their dominant position in Gothic art. The images of Gothic sculpture, personifying the dogmas and values ​​of Christianity, the very appearance of the cathedral, and all forms of Gothic art were intended to promote a mystical perception of God and the world. At the same time, there is an awakening of the mind and feelings, and a growing interest in man.

The main feature of a Gothic cathedral is its stable frame system. The entire weight of the cathedral's bulk fell on its frame. This made it possible to make thin walls in which huge windows were cut out. The most characteristic motif of Gothic architecture was the pointed arch, which seemed to stretch the building to the heavens.

The development of sculpture, which played a leading role in fine arts this period. Gothic sculpture is more subordinate to architecture and has a more independent meaning than Romanesque. Numerous niches on the facades of cathedrals housed figures personifying the dogmas of the Christian faith. The most significant figures were attached to columns in the openings on the sides of the entrance to the cathedral.

Thus, Gothic art revived sculpture itself, unknown to medieval culture since antiquity. The characteristic features of Gothic sculpture can be reduced to the following: interest in the phenomena of the real world; figures representing the dogmas and beliefs of the Catholic Church become more realistic; the role of secular subjects is increasing; round plastic appears and begins to play a dominant role (although the relief does not disappear).

The most famous monuments of French Gothic are the cathedrals of Amiens and Reims (XIII century), the Church of Saint Chapelle (XIII century). Most famous monument English Gothic - Westminster Abbey (XIII - XVI centuries).

The Gothic style changed the appearance of the medieval city and contributed to the development of secular construction. Town halls are starting to be built in cities open galleries. The castles of aristocrats increasingly resemble palaces. Rich townspeople build houses with peaked gable roofs, narrow windows, lancet doorways, and corner turrets.

During the Gothic era, decorative and applied arts flourished.

Conclusion

In this test work It is clear that when managing an organization, it is impossible for managers to use only one established leadership style. They tend to constantly make changes to the existing style, in accordance with the surrounding reality. Currently, the leader needs to pay more attention to human relations within the team. Constant changes in modern society force us to always be ready to carry out reforms in the field of organizational management and production. Therefore, it becomes obvious that it is impossible to meet any of the styles we have considered in its extreme manifestation, since not every style may suit the current situation. Thus, not only the efficiency of production in the organization and his authority, but also the moral and psychological atmosphere in the team will depend on the choice of a leader. A sense of stability, job satisfaction, mutual understanding between the manager and subordinates become the main key to successful production.

List of used literature

1. Knorring V.I. General and social management. M, 1997.

2. Marx K. Capital. T.1/ Marx K., Engels F. - Op. - 2nd ed. T.23. - M.: Politizdat, 1975.

3. Vasilyeva Yu.V., Parakhina V.N., Ushvitsky.L.I. Control Theory: Textbook - 2nd ed., additional. - M., 2005.

4. Bazarova T.Yu., Eremina B.L. Personnel management: Textbook - M.: "Unity", 2001.

5. Knorring V.I. Theory, practice and art of management: Textbook. 3rd ed. change, add. - M.: Norma, 2007

6. Kabushkin N.I. Fundamentals of Management: Textbook. allowance. - 4th ed. - M.: New knowledge, 2001.

7. Kuzina R.Z., Bikmukhametova N.Z., Guidelines on conducting seminars, completing tests and organizing independent work in the discipline "Psychology", Educational and methodological manual - 2013.

8. Fundamentals of management: Textbook. manual for universities / Edited by A. A. Radugina - M: Center, 1998

9. Shekshnya S.V. Personnel management of a modern organization: Educational and practical manual - M.: ZAO "Business School", 1998.

10. Vershigora E.E. Management: Proc. Benefit. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional - M.: Infra-M, 2000.

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