Huge significance in the social and cultural life of Russia II half of the 19th century V. acquired literature. A special attitude towards literature dates back to the beginning of the century, to the era of the brilliant development of Russian literature, which went down in history under the name of the “Golden Age”. Literature was seen not only as a field of artistic creativity, but also as a source of spiritual improvement, an arena of ideological battles, and a guarantee of a special great future for Russia. The abolition of serfdom, bourgeois reforms, the formation of capitalism, and the difficult wars that Russia had to wage during this period found a lively response in the works of Russian writers. Their opinions were listened to. Their views largely determined the public consciousness of the Russian population of that time.
The leading direction in literary creativity was critical realism. Second half of the 19th century. turned out to be extremely rich in talent. The works of I. S. Turgenev, I. A. Goncharov, L. N. Tolstoy, F. M. Dostoevsky, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, A. P. Chekhov brought worldwide fame to Russian literature.
One of the most remarkable writers of the mid-century wasIvan Sergeevich Turgenev (1818–1883). A representative of an old noble family, who spent his childhood on his parents' estate Spassky-Lutovinovo near the city of Mtsensk, Oryol province, he, like no one else, was able to convey the atmosphere of a Russian village - peasant and landowner. Most of Turgenev lived his life abroad. Nevertheless, the images of Russian people are surprisingly alive in his works. The writer was exceptionally truthful in depicting a gallery of portraits of peasants in a series of stories that brought him fame, the first of which "Khor and Kalinich" was published in the Sovremennik magazine in 1847. Sovremennik published the stories one after another. Their release caused a great public outcry. Subsequently, the entire series was published by I. S. Turgenev in one book, called "Notes of a Hunter" . Moral quests, love, and the life of a landowner's estate are revealed to the reader in the novel"Nobles' Nest" (1858). The conflict of generations, unfolding against the backdrop of a clash between the nobility experiencing a crisis and the new generation of commoners (embodied in the image of Bazarov), who have made denial (“nihilism”) the banner of ideological self-affirmation, is shown in the novel "Fathers and Sons" (1862).
The destinies of the Russian nobility are reflected in the worksI. A. Goncharova . The characters of the heroes of his works are contradictory: soft, sincere, conscientious, but passive, unable to “get off the couch” Ilya Ilyich Oblomov ( "Oblomov" , 1859); educated, gifted, romantically inclined, but again, like Oblomov, inactive and weak-willed Boris Raisky ( "Cliff" , 1869). Goncharov managed to create an image of a very typical breed of people, to show a widespread phenomenon of social life of that time, which received at the suggestion of a literary critic N. A. Dobrolyubova the name "Oblomovism".
The middle of the century marks the beginning of the literary activity of the greatest Russian writer, thinker and public figure, Count Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy (1828–1910). His legacy is enormous. The titanic personality of Tolstoy represents the figure of an author characteristic of Russian culture, for whom literature was closely connected with social activities, and the professed ideas were propagated primarily by the example of his own life. Already in the first works of L.N. Tolstoy, published in the 50s. XIX century and brought him fame (trilogy "Childhood" , "Adolescence" , "Youth" , Caucasian AndSevastopol stories ), a powerful talent emerged. In 1863 the story was published"Cossacks" , which became important stage in his work. Tolstoy came close to creating a historical epic novel"War and Peace" (1863–1869) His own experience of participation in the Crimean War and the defense of Sevastopol allowed Tolstoy to reliably depict the events of the heroic 1812. The novel combines a huge and varied material, its ideological potential is immeasurable. Pictures of family life, love line, the characters of people are intertwined with large-scale canvases historical events. According to L.N. Tolstoy himself, the main idea in the novel was “folk thought.” The people are shown in the novel as the creator of history, the people's environment as the only true and healthy soil for any Russian person. The next novel by L.N. Tolstoy is "Anna Karenina" (1874–1876). It combines the story of the main character's family drama with an artistic understanding of the pressing social and moral issues of our time. Third great novel great writer - "Resurrection" (1889–1899), called by R. Rolland “one of the most beautiful poems about human compassion.”
Drama of the second half of the 19th century. was represented by playsA. N. Ostrovsky (“Our people – we will be numbered” , "Plum" , "The Marriage of Balzaminov" , "Storm" etc.) andA. V. Sukhovo-Kobylina (trilogy"Krechinsky's Wedding" , "Case" , "The Death of Tarelkin" ).
An important place in the literature of the 70s. takesM. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin , whose satirical talent manifested itself most powerfully in"Stories of a City" . One of the best works by M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin"Messrs. Golovlevs" tells about the gradual disintegration of the family and the extinction of the Golovlev landowners. The novel shows the lies and absurdity underlying the relationships within the noble family, which ultimately leads them to death.
An unsurpassed master of the psychological novel wasFyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky (1821–1881). Dostoevsky's genius was manifested in extraordinary ability the writer to reveal to the reader the hidden, sometimes terrifying, truly mystical depths of human nature, showing monstrous mental catastrophes in the most ordinary settings ( "Crime and Punishment" , "The Brothers Karamazov" , "Poor people" , "Idiot" ).
A new stage in the development of realism in Russian literature was creativityAnton Pavlovich Chekhov (1860–1904). A. P. Chekhov’s talent manifested itself primarily in small-scalestories , in which the writer amazingly accurately, with subtle humor and slight sadness, showed life ordinary people- provincial landowners, zemstvo doctors, county young ladies, behind whose monotonous life a real tragedy arose - unfulfilled dreams, unfulfilled aspirations, strength, knowledge, love that turned out to be useless to anyone. A.P. Chekhov also wrote for the theater. He created wonderful plays ("Three Sisters" 1900 "The Cherry Orchard" 1903), in which, as in stories, deep content was hidden behind the external simplicity of the plot. The drama of human life is terrible in its everyday hopelessness.
The pinnacle of Russian poetry of the second half of the 19th century. there was creativityNikolai Alekseevich Nekrasov (1821–1878). The main topic His works depicted the hardships of the working people. To convey through the power of the artistic word to an educated reader living in prosperity the full depth of the people's poverty and grief, to show the greatness of the simple peasant - such was the meaning of the poetry of N. A. Nekrasov (poem “Who lives well in Rus'” , 1866–1876) The poet understood his poetic activity as a civic duty to serve his country. In addition, N. A. Nekrasov is known for his publishing activities. He published magazines "Contemporary" , "Domestic Notes" , on the pages of which the works of many later famous Russian writers first saw the light of day. In Nekrasov's Sovremennik, L. N. Tolstoy first published his trilogy “Childhood”, “Adolescence”, “Youth”, I. S. Turgenev published the first stories, Goncharov, Belinsky, Herzen, Chernyshevsky were published.
A special place in the literature of the second half of the 19th century. occupies the lyrics. The poetry of Russian nature and love, which at the same time is not devoid of a civil sound, found expression in creativity F. I. Tyutcheva , A. A. Feta , A. N. Maykova .
The appearance of Russian literature changed quite seriously at the turn of the century. He entered Russian culture with his bright and original talent. Maxim Gorky (Alexey Maksimovich Peshkov, 1868–1936). Coming from the people, formed as a personality thanks to persistent self-education, he enriched Russian literature with images of extraordinary strength and novelty. Gorky took a direct part in the revolutionary movement, actively promoting the activities of the RSDLP. He put his literary talent at the service of the political struggle. Yes, his novel "Mother" , telling about the life of a working-class family, was undoubtedly intended to play the role of a propaganda pamphlet, to attune the reader to certain political ideas. At the same time, one cannot reduce the entire work of A. M. Gorky only to narrow political enlightenment. As a real talent, he was wider than any ideological boundaries. Of lasting importance are its "Song of the Storm Petrel" , autobiographical trilogy"Childhood" , "In People" , "My Universities" , plays"At the Bottom" , "Vassa Zheleznova" , novel"The Life of Klim Samgin" .
The study of literature is closely connected with the study of history, with the study of the liberation movement.
The entire liberation movement in Russia can be divided into three stages:
Decembrist (noble) (from 1825 to 1861). (Ryleev, Griboyedov, Pushkin, Lermontov, Gogol, Herzen, Belinsky, etc.)
Bourgeois-democratic (raznochinsky) (from 1861 to 1895) (Nekrasov, Turgenev, Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Saltykov-Shchedrin, Chernyshevsky, Dobrolyubov, etc.)
Proletarsky (since 1895) (A.M. Gorky is rightfully considered the founder of proletarian literature)
The 60s of the 19th century are one of the brightest pages in the history of the ideological and artistic development of our country. During these years, the work of such wonderful writers as Ostrovsky, Turgenev, Nekrasov, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy, Chekhov and others was revealed in all its beauty and power. talented critics, such as Dobrolyubov, Pisarev, Chernyshevsky and others, such brilliant artists, like Repin, Kramskoy, Perov, Surikov, Vasnetsov, Savrasov and others, such outstanding composers, like Tchaikovsky, Mussorgsky, Glinka, Borodin, Rimsky-Korsakov and others.
In the 60s of the 19th century, Russia entered the second stage of the liberation movement. The narrow circle of noble revolutionaries was replaced by new fighters who called themselves commoners. These were representatives of the petty nobility, clergy, officials, peasantry, and intelligentsia. They greedily sought knowledge and, having mastered it, carried their knowledge to the people. The most selfless part of the commoners took the path of revolutionary struggle against the autocracy. This new fighter needed his own poet to express his ideas. N.A. became such a poet. Nekrasov.
By the mid-50s of the 19th century, it became clear that the “knot of all evils” in Russia was serfdom. Everyone understood this. But there was no consensus on How get rid of it. The democrats, led by Chernyshevsky, called on the people for revolution. They were opposed by conservatives and liberals, who believed that serfdom should be abolished through reforms from above. In 1861, the tsarist government was forced to abolish serfdom, but this “liberation” turned out to be a deception, since the land remained the property of the landowners.
The political struggle between the Democrats, on the one hand, and conservatives and liberals, on the other, was reflected in the literary struggle. The arena of this struggle was, in particular, the magazine Sovremennik (1847 - 1866), and after its closure the magazine Otechestvennye zapiski (1868 - 1884).
Sovremennik magazine
The magazine was founded by Pushkin in 1836. After his death in 1837, Pushkin’s friend, professor at St. Petersburg University Pletnev, became the editor of the magazine.
In 1847, N.A. rented the magazine. Nekrasov and I.I. Panaev. They managed to group all the best literary forces of that time around the magazine. The critical department was led by Belinsky, Herzen, Turgenev, Grigorovich, Tolstoy, Fet and others published their works.
During the period of revolutionary upsurge, Chernyshevsky and Dobrolyubov joined the editorial board of Sovremennik. They turned the magazine into a weapon in the struggle to overthrow the autocracy. At the same time, irreconcilable contradictions emerged among the magazine’s staff between democratic writers and liberal writers. In 1860, there was a split in the editorial board. The occasion was Dobrolyubov’s article “When Will the Real Day Come,” dedicated to Turgenev’s novel “The Eve.” Turgenev, who defended liberal positions, did not agree with the revolutionary interpretation of his novel and, after the article was published, resigned from the editorial office of the magazine in protest. Together with him, other liberal writers left the magazine: Tolstoy, Goncharov, Fet and others.
However, after their departure, Nekrasov, Chernyshevsky and Dobrolyubov managed to rally talented young people around Sovremennik and turned the magazine into a revolutionary tribune of the era. As a result, in 1862 the publication of Sovremennik was suspended for 8 months, and in 1866 it was closed completely. The traditions of Sovremennik were continued by the journal Otechestvennye zapiski (1868 - 1884), which was published under the editorship of Nekrasov and Saltykov-Shchedrin.
Dobrolyubov Nikolai Alexandrovich (1836 -- 1861)
Dobrolyubov's life is devoid of bright external events, but is rich in complex internal content. He was born in Nizhny Novgorod in the family of a priest, smart and educated person. He studied at a theological school, then at a theological seminary, and at the age of 17 he entered the Main Pedagogical Institute in St. Petersburg. In 1856, he brought his first article to the editors of Sovremennik, followed by 4 years of feverish, tireless work and a year abroad, where the critic went to be treated for tuberculosis, a year spent waiting for death. That's the whole biography of Dobrolyubov. At his grave, Chernyshevsky said: “Dobrolyubov’s death was a great loss. The Russian people lost their best defender in him.”
The feeling of great loss and admiration for a friend is also expressed in the poem by N.A. Nekrasov "In Memory of Dobrolyubov".
"In Memory of Dobrolyubov"
You were harsh, you were in your younger years
He knew how to subordinate passion to reason.
You taught me to live for glory, for freedom,
But you taught me more to die.
Consciously worldly pleasures
You rejected, you kept purity,
You did not quench the thirst of your heart;
As a woman, you loved your homeland.
Your works, hopes, thoughts
You gave it to her; you are honest hearts
He conquered her. Calling for new life
And a bright paradise, and pearls for a crown
You cooked for your stern mistress.
But your hour struck too early,
And the prophetic pen fell from his hands.
What a lamp of reason has gone out!
What heart has stopped beating!
Years have passed, passions have subsided,
And you rose high above us.
Cry, Russian land! But also be proud -
Since you've been standing under the skies
You never gave birth to such a son
And she didn’t take hers back into the depths:
Treasures of spiritual beauty
They were combined in it gracefully.
Mother Nature! If only such people
Sometimes you didn't send to the world,
The field of life would die out...
Literature is the main fundamental thing in human life. What it reveals to any individual, what it is filled with, is simply unthinkable, because knowledge and cultural experience directly affects readers who dare to look into creative world poets and writers. Thanks to her, the people, in turn, could fight for their own freedom, eliminate terror and poverty. Historical significance literature is simply enormous, because Russian writers worked hard for it, creating magnificent works that are recognized over the years and centuries as masterpieces artistic creativity. Distinctive feature Russian literature of the second half of the 19th century is, first of all, a sophisticated language, unusual images, an excellent combination of certain words, deep feelings and the suffering of the heroes, difficulties, problems that, when posed in one or another work, were necessarily solved, answers were found.
Speaking about such a period, it is impossible not to mention the great creator who transformed Russian literature - Ivan Sergeevich Turgenev. This is the master artistic word, this is a person sensitive to ordinary details, attentive, educated, and most importantly talented. He is known to everyone for his work: “Rudin”, and “On the Eve”, and “Fathers and Sons”, etc. In all his own stories and novels, Turgenev was able to put on paper his disturbing thoughts and questions that trouble his head, which are relevant and popular and to this day. Without a magnificent figure, literature would not be filled with such vivid and amazing works!
Chernyshevsky contributed no less to literature with his novel “What is to be done?” He talks about social movement, about the struggle for freedom. The work repeatedly called for revolutionary action. Undoubtedly, there were those who could not accept the novel as something educational and outstanding, but all readers were able to see the period of devastation and radical change in the work. And for this, many thanks to Chernyshevsky.
How can you forget about Ivan Aleksandrovich Goncharov! It was he who managed to show people the decay of serfdom! He has only three works in his arsenal: the familiar “Oblomov”, the popular “ An ordinary story", the captivating "Precipice" - however, for so few, the writer breathed something new into literature, drawing vivid images of officials and landowners. With the help of Goncharov’s creativity, people discover the atmosphere of that time and encounter difficulties that are quite difficult to imagine without books.
During this period, literature admitted into the ranks of the largest creative figure, whose influence on the minds of people is simply enormous - Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky! A man who has faced many obstacles and tragedies in life. He outlined all the hardships of his own life in his works. “Poor People” are full of despair and hopelessness; defeat and compassion appear in the souls of readers when the book “The Brothers Karamazov” appears before their eyes; “Notes from dead house”, and the novel “Crime and Punishment” frightens and frightens the imagination. The images that Dostoevsky created appeared so vividly and alarmingly on the pages of the books!
He denounced bribe-takers, dishonest people, hated liberals, hypocrites, and vain individuals. He was disliked by those who gathered people for their own needs. The person who did not dare to tolerate this was Saltykov-Shchedrin - a wonderful writer, the author of stories that sank into the very soul. All emotions about that period of time were reflected in his works: the unsurpassed “Lord Golovlevs”, the mysterious and strange “History of the City of Foolov”. Saltykov-Shchedrin, through his own creativity, tried to convey to all readers that there are too many wealthy people and bigots on the planet. They were, are and will be. But this fact cannot be left aside. It is important to get acquainted with great stories, novels, analyze, and reflect on what you read. Then the minds of society will be enlightened, life will become simpler.
What about Nekrasov? Nikolai Alekseevich cannot be forgotten under any circumstances! Why? This is a singer of the Russian disadvantaged people, who with his own songs and poems calmed the hearts of people and helped in difficult times. His work saved him from worries and stress, because Nekrasov wrote about the plight of the people as a whole, bringing into this or that poem something close to the soul itself! Who doesn’t know his great poems: “Who Lives Well in Rus',” which aroused the people’s complete trust in the unsurpassed writer! And still reading “Russian Women” brings tears to my eyes...
And the last one who cannot be removed from memory is the outstanding Anton Pavlovich Chekhov, creativity which find their place towards the end of the nineteenth century! It is he who owns the words known to every reader: “Brevity is the sister of talent.” The writer transformed the period of that time by creating unique works, which are short in content. Accuracy, depiction of every detail, quickly getting into the atmosphere of what is happening - Chekhov was able to do all this. He easily managed to transport the reader into a certain story in a few words, without forgetting the story of the previous one. What did Anton Pavlovich show in his own works? He depicted the vulgarity of man, clearly ridiculing it, showed the narrow outlook of individuals, typical images that combine negative qualities. All these images are in his stories: “Chameleon”, “Literature Teacher” and others. The list could take a long time, but it’s better to check it out for yourself!
Thus, the literature of this period is famous for the large number of writers who were great creators who made an extraordinary contribution to the development creative direction! Don't forget what you dedicated your entire life to own life great people!
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Russian literature of the second half of the 19th century continues the traditions of Pushkin, Lermontov, Gogol. There is a strong influence of criticism on the literary process, especially the master's thesis of N.G. Chernyshevsky “Aesthetic relations of art to reality.” His thesis that beauty is life underlies many literary works of the second half of the 19th century. This is where the desire to reveal the reasons comes from social evil. At this time, the main theme of works of literature became the theme of the people, its acute social and political meaning. IN literary works images of men appear - righteous people, rebels and altruistic philosophers. Works by I.S. Turgeneva, N.A. Nekrasova, (Appendix 4.) L.N. Tolstoy, F.M. Dostoevsky's works are distinguished by a variety of genres and forms, and stylistic richness. The special role of the novel in literary process as phenomena in the history of world culture, in artistic development of all humanity.
Turgenev and Dostoevsky passed away in the early 80s, and Goncharov retired from artistic creativity. A new galaxy of young wordsmiths appeared on the literary horizon - Garshin, Korolenko, Chekhov. The literary process reflected the intense development social thought. Issues of social and government structure, life and morals, national history- in fact, all Russian life was subjected to analytical coverage. At the same time, a huge amount of material was examined, and great problems were posed that would determine the further progress of the country. But at the same time, Russian literature, along with the so-called “damned questions” of Russian reality, comes to the formulation of universal moral and philosophical problems.
Fiction preserved traditions critical realism: humanism, nationality and citizenship. Prominent representatives of this style were: I.S. Turgenev, N.A. Nekrasov, F.N. Dostoevsky, I.A. Goncharov, etc.
However artistic techniques critical realism ceased to satisfy many writers of the 19th century. A deeper interest in personality, its inner world, the search for new visual means and forms, all this caused the emergence of modernism in literature and art. There were many currents in it. The differences were determined by the difference in philosophical, ethical and aesthetic positions that determined the choice of style and linguistic means. What they had in common was innovation, the celebration of personal freedom, the cult of beauty and exoticism, the sonority and richness of expressions, the unexpectedness of rhymes and images.
In the second half of the 19th century. Three new literary movements appeared: symbolism, acmeism and futurism.
In their works, the symbolists tried to depict the life of every soul - full of experiences, unclear, vague moods, subtle feelings, fleeting impressions. Aesthetic principles Symbolists were formulated by D.S. Merezhkovsky, A.A. Block, K.D. Balmont and V.Ya. Bryusov, who became their recognized leader.
The Acmeists proclaimed materiality, objectivity of themes and images, and precision of words. Acmeism is based on a preference for describing real, earthly life, but it was perceived asocially and ahistorically. The little things of life and the objective world were described. Representatives of this literary movement were: N.S. Gumilev, A.A. Akhmatova, O.E. Mandelstam et al.
The futurists were interested not so much in the content as in the form of versification. They invented new words, used vulgar vocabulary, professional jargon, the language of documents, posters and posters. D.D. wrote his works in this style. Burliuk, V.V. Mayakovsky, Sasha Cherny, etc.
With all the diversity of creative approaches and methods of writers of the second half of the 19th century, they were united by a single orientation towards the moral impact of works, and the fact that literature can contribute to social progress. Hence the passion and preaching of Russian fiction that surprised European writers. But is it possible, “being people not only living in Russia, but Russians,” to be content with dispassionate art, when “the giant millstones of the era have captured and are grinding all life?”, wrote A.A. Block.
In the second half of the nineteenth century, Russian literature and culture flourished. IN public life countries during this period are experiencing important events: Crimean War, numerous peasant unrest, abolition of serfdom, the formation of capitalism. In general, social relations overcome a certain level, certain level, after which a return to the recent past seems impossible. First of all, this concerns attitudes towards a person, his problems, without distinction between categories and classes. The process of formation of the “new man”, his social and moral self-awareness begins. It is not surprising that such aspirations made realism the main direction in Russian literature by the mid-19th century, through which the principles of depicting reality were developed. His new stage was closely associated with an attempt to penetrate in detail into the depths human feelings and relationships. The authors demonstrate a desire not only to convey their emotions through characters, but also to reveal the main causes of social evil. As a result, authors are increasingly turning to folk themes in their works; the image of a peasant, a peasant, is becoming one of the main ones in fiction. The traditions of realism laid down by Lermontov, Pushkin, Gogol are being consolidated, and their works in many ways become a standard for new authors. Critical reviews of works acquire considerable significance and weight. This was largely due to the activities of Chernyshevsky, including his dissertation “Aesthetic Relations of Art to Reality.” It’s impossible not to remember what exactly happened at that time significant event: V Russian Empire Serfdom was abolished, which of course was reflected in fiction. The desire for further reforms on this basis led to controversy and the emergence of two camps: liberals and democrats. The first proposed political and economic reforms of gradual change public relations, the latter insisted on immediate, radical changes, usually through revolutionary processes. Dobrolyubov, Herzen, Nekrasov, Chernyshevsky, among others, belonged to the democratic camp, and Dostoevsky, Turgenev, Druzhinin, Leskov adhered to liberal views. As a rule, the exchange of views and ideas was carried out through polemics on the pages literary magazines. Also in the literature there are disputes between supporters of “pure art” and adherents of the “Gogolian” movement, and later - between “soilists” and “Westerners”. Under the influence of the ideology of commoners, ideas develop “ real criticism", the problem is raised positive hero. The creative searches of realist writers lead to new artistic discoveries, enriching the novel genre, strengthening psychologism. In the second half of the 19th century, a whole galaxy of talented Russian writers appeared: F.M. Dostoevsky (Poor people, Crime and Punishment), I.S. Turgenev (Fathers and Sons, Notes of a Hunter), I.A. Goncharov (Ordinary history, Oblomov, Precipice), A.N. Ostrovsky (Thunderstorm, Not everything is Maslenitsa for the cat, Lack of dowry, Our own people - we will be numbered), N.A. Nekrasov (Princess Volkonskaya, Who Lives Well in Rus'), M.E. Saltykov - Shchedrin (The History of a City, Lord Golovlev, Poshekhon Antiquity), L.N. Tolstoy (War and Peace), A.P. Chekhov (Novel of a Doctor, Novel of a Reporter, Ward No. 6, Death of an Official, Melancholy, Vanka, The Cherry Orchard).
