Today I would like to talk about the oldest culture today nationalities living in the territory Uzbekistan - Khorezmians, whose history goes back centuries. Ancient past Khorezm buried under layers of sand Karakum, containing secrets and clues that go to those who, with their painstaking work, discover more and more evidence of a once majestic civilization that lay in the upper reaches of Amu Darya (Oksa), civilization ancient Khorezm.
The formation of the Khorezm state refers to VII -VI centuries BC Almost the first mention of Khorezm as a country is found in Mihr-:Avestas, he is mentioned in Behistunskaya inscriptions Darius I, compiled in 520 AD It is known that the Khorezmians participated in Greco-Persian war on the side of the Persians, they worked on the construction of Persepolis and in the shipyards of Memphis.
During excavations: archaeologists on the island Elephantine in Egypt in 1907-1908. was discovered about 100 papyri, came from a military colony. Among them is a curious document dated 464 BC, which sets out litigation to the Jew Mahsei on behalf of Dargamana, son Kharshin, Khorezmian from Artaban's detachment, which served in the garrison in Elephantine.
Unique natural conditions The region has allowed the preservation of numerous and varied archaeological sites. Just look around
from the top of some hill,to see the ruins of fortresses, city walls, gates, towers. With the help of aerial photography, even under a layer of sand, it is possible to detect the beds of ancient irrigation structures and the fields that they irrigated.
Khorezm- this is real Klondike for archaeologists,
where many mysteries lurk. One of the most
amazing, vibrant and mysterious ancient cities of Khorezm is Toprak-kala settlement,on the plain, on the border of the desert Kyzylkum and irrigated zone, 4-5 km south of the spurs Sultan of Uizdag. This plain was once irrigated by an ancient canal Gavhore length 70 km. The ruins of this city were discovered by an expedition led by S.P. Tolstova in 1938 Research has shown that Toprak-Kala was built according to a single plan in II century AD and existed until the IV-VI centuries.
The city was a vast regular rectangle size 500×350 m, stretched from north to south. The territory of the city was covered by fortress walls with square towers erected at every 10-12 m. Corner towers were a kind of bastions, covering the corner on both sides. There were two-story defensive galleries inside the walls.
The lower gallery served for hidden movement and rest of soldiers, and the upper one was for combat. From here, the city was defended through arrow-shaped loopholes. The height of the walls was more than 14 m. For a greater fortification effect, the pre-wall territory was turned into deep “pocket traps” with dense flank shelling. This was achieved by moving the towers to a distance of almost 9 m from the wall.
Moreover, the towers were not folded together with the body of the fortress wall. The technical technique was supposed to ensure independent settlement of the walls and towers, thereby contributing to the safety of both. By the way, this technique was well known in the ancient world. Its use is highly recommended Vitruvius (1st century BC) during the construction of fortresses. It is noteworthy that this method was known and used by Khorezmian masters.
A characteristic phenomenon of the military thought of that time was the construction of ditches in front of fortress walls as an additional barrier. Moat Toprak-kala surrounded the city walls on all sides and was built at a distance of 15 m from the walls. Its width was 16 m, and its depth reached 3 m.
The only entrance to the city was located in the center of the southern façade. Since the city gates were usually considered the weakest, most vulnerable point in defense, the builders Toprak-kala They identified the entrance to a special fortification with a passage in the form of a cranked labyrinth.
The internal development of the city is also unique. The central street highway, laid from north to south to the city gates, cut the city in two, and the transverse grid of streets divided the city buildings into 10 blocks, one of them was a temple, the rest were residential. In each quarter, as it turned out, there were approximately 150-200 residential and utility premises, which ranged from three to six households. Undoubtedly, such neighborhoods differed from the neighborhoods we are accustomed to, as parts of urban development covered by streets.
On Toprak-Kala, the boundaries of the block passed behind the houses facing different sides of the street. The arrays, surrounded by blank walls of the house, had individual exits to the intra-block street. Each quarter had its own small sanctuaries. Traces of handicraft production were identified (remains of a bronze foundry, a bow-making workshop, etc.) Number of inhabitants Toprak-kala was approximately 2.5 thousand adults. Moreover, most of them were employed in the protection and maintenance of palaces.
The most interesting buildings Toprak-kala were located in its northern part, which occupied almost a third of the city territory. The northeast corner was reserved for a bazaar or town square. The northwest corner was occupied citadel, which was essentially a fortified “reserved” city with an area of 3.2 hectares. In its northwestern part, a palace rose on a high platform. Within the citadel, at the foot of the platform of the high palace, archaeologists discovered a fire temple. Even now, the grandiose palace towers over the city area with its mighty bulk. It is fraught with many mysteries.
Fan va turmush No. 1-3 / 2006 www.fvat.uzsci.net
Special position in ancient history Central Asia
occupied Khorezm, located in the lower reaches of the Amu Darya. This country is stillIV
V. BC e. separated from Achaemenid state, and the Khorezmian king Pharasman in 329-328 BC e. came to Alexander the Great for negotiations. Even then in Khorezm there was a developed urban culture. Soon, perhaps, during the advance of nomadic alliances to the south, towards Parthia and Greco-Bactria, Khorezm falls under the rule of nomadic tribes. It's interesting that when I century n. e. The first local coins are issued, on their reverse side there is already an image of the ruler on a horse.
A typical urban center of ancient Khorezm is the ancient settlement Toprak-Kala.
"Ancient Civilizations" under general editorship G.M.Bongard-Levina
Palace of the Rulers Khorezm Toprak-kala (III century) preserved the remains of paintings and sculptures that decorated the walls of its numerous state rooms. Murals Toprak-kala characterizes the variety of subjects and originality of style.
The painting was made on a thick layer of white ganch applied on clay plaster with mineral paints ground on vegetable glue, apparently using the alsecco method (i.e., on a dry, not moistened base). The painting was done either with an evenly applied layer, or with a strong brushstroke, simulating the details of the images, with black paint, which the painter used to outline the main contours. The colorful palette is very extensive - it varies in colors and shades: black and white, blue and cyan, pink, bright red and burgundy, lemon yellow and orange, pale and dense green, brown, purple; all this in a variety of nuances of tones, but with a predominance of bright, rich colors.
The most significant place belongs to thematic images, which are extremely diverse in content. Among the thematic compositions, a typical couple is presented in an arched niche - a man and a woman, sitting in solemn poses. This plot will be repeated in countless replicas on eastern medieval ceramics, - on metal of the 11th-12th centuries, V miniatures of the XIV-XVII centuries, but its basis, as we see, goes back to the depths of local antiquity.
In the painting of the hall, which was part of the northern courtyard of the palace, figures of musicians were placed against the background of a lush ornament composed of a system of intersecting stripes and hearts. There is an image of a harpist with a round face and a full bare arm in bracelets, whose fingers pluck the strings of a large harp pressed to her chest; a figure emerges from a thicket of acanthus. . Khorezm harpist characterized by feminine roundness of form and somewhat mannered grace of gesture; The placement of the half-figure in a bush of acanthus gives a special decorative effect to the composition. Apparently, in Toprak-kale, as in Bishaiur Palace, the painting is based on a palace-feast, and not a religious-Buddhist plot.
The so-called Room of Queens of Hearts received its name from archaeologists thanks to the remains female figures, shown among the red hearts filling the background. A well-defined profile with a straight nose, a strong chin and an elongated outline of the eyes under straight eyebrows; curly heavy earrings and necklaces; braids falling down the back from under a headdress twisted above the forehead; dresses made of richly ornamented fabric - all these details convey a deeply unique look Khorezmiek. As for the visual style itself, the originality of the artistic interpretation is undoubted. Gives special expressiveness "queens of hearts" complexity of the pose: three-quarter or frontal position of the body with a profile position of the head, a complex gesture of the hand holding a cord in one case, a vessel in another.
Prominent role in decoration Toprak-kala the sculpture played. Its material was mainly clay, occasionally ganch. It is important to emphasize, as a fundamental feature, the fundamental connection between sculpture and architecture - be it a three-dimensional statue or a high relief. It is also necessary to note its organic connection with painting, with polychrome, with color; the sculpture is painted over a white undercoat in a variety of colors, reflecting fabric patterns, embroidery, and jewelry; statues are often placed against an ornamental background of niches.
Very impressive preserved female heads - one of them was tentatively named by archaeologists "Red Head", the second - “The Wife of Vazamara”. Particularly expressive "Red Head". The pupils and eyelids of large oblong eyes are painted dark color. A straight nose, wide at the base, a small, calm mouth. The oval of the face is elongated, the chin is heavy. There is a certain plastic generality in the sculpting technique, which is also enhanced by the even, without nuances, reddish color. Meanwhile, an attentive, somewhat askew look and some kind of courageous energy of the face give it both expressiveness and life-like authenticity.
At sunset Khorezm antiquity the art of sculpture gives rise here to a special cycle of funerary sculpture on ossuaries. Specific to Central Asian Mazdaism the custom of preserving the bones of the deceased in terracotta coffins leads to ceremonial and decorative treatment of the latter in cases where the customer is a noble family that preserves the remains of entire generations in family caskets.
Among the different types Khorezm ossuaries - box-shaped, barrel-shaped etc. - several specimens from Koi-Krylgan-kala, decorated with images of human figures of a generalized typified style. This is the image of a man, somewhat less than life-size, shown sitting with his legs crossed in an oriental manner.
The extreme generalization of the sculptural manner, which is distinguished by the laconicism of the visual means, the undifferentiation of plastic modeling, the strict frontality and numbness of the pose - all this gives the ossuary sculptures from Koi-Krylgan-kala somewhat abstract in nature. The image does not convey the individual characteristics, temperament, or inner essence of the depicted character; it is extremely typified, instilling the idea of the timeless essence of the funerary statue.
“History of Arts of Uzbekistan” Pugachenkova G.A. Rempel L.I. publishing house "Art"
1965
Images taken from magazine“Fan va turmush” No. 1-3 / 2006, from“History of Arts of Uzbekistan” Pugachenkova G.A. Rempel L.I. publishing house "Art" 1965, as well as from "Ancient Civilizations" under general editorship G.M. Bongard-Levin “Thought” 1989
Khorezm
History of the period BC e., is incomplete and scattered. Due to the geographical location of ancient Khorezm, the territory was always attacked from outside. From some studies of Khorezm according to the Avesta, in the dictionary of the scientist Dekhkhod the word "Khorezm", described as short for "the cradle of the Aryan peoples" However, there are many versions of the origin of the name Khorezm, for example, "nursing land", "low land", "a country with good fortifications for livestock".
People
In his historical works “Chronology” (Asar al-bakiya "ani-l-qurun al-khaliyya) Al Biruni, refers the ancient Khorezmians to the Persian tree. He writes about the Turks as the ancient inhabitants of Khorezm. Biruni distinguished the Khorezmian language from Persian when he wrote “reproach in Arabic is dearer to me than praise in Persian... this dialect is only suitable for Khosroev’s stories and night tales.”
The exact dates of the appearance of the Khorezmians, as well as the ethnonym, are unknown, but the first written mention is found in Darius I in the Behistun inscription 522-519 BC. e. . There are also carved reliefs of East Iranian warriors, including a Khorezmian warrior, next to Sogdian, Bactrian and Saka warriors, indicating the participation of the Khorezmians in the military campaigns of the rulers of the Achaemenid state. But already at the end of the 5th century BC, the Khorezmians gained independence from the Achaemenids and in 328 BC sent their ambassadors to Alexander the Great. Scientists' opinion
- According to the works of Al-Biruni, the Khorezmians began their chronology from the beginning of the settlement of their country, in 980 before the invasion of Alexander the Great into the Achaemenid Empire, that is, before the beginning of the Seleucid era - 312 BC. e. - starting from 1292 BC. e. At the end of this era, they adopted another: from 1200 BC. e. and the time of the arrival in their country of the mythical hero of the Avesta and the ancient hero of the Iranian epic, which is described in "Shahname" Firdousi - Siyavush ibn-Key-Kausa, who subjugated the “kingdom of the Turks” to his power, and Kay-Khosrov, son of Siyavush, became the founder of the Khorezmshah dynasty, which ruled Khorezm until the 10th century. n. e.
- S.P. Tolstov - historian and ethnographer, professor, wrote the following:
In his work he writes about direct connections between the Hittites and the Massagetae, not excluding the possibility that Gothic tribes were also in this chain. The researcher comes to the conclusion that the Khorezmian Japhetids (Cavids) act as one of the links in the chain of ancient Indo-European tribes, ringing the Black and Caspian Seas at the turn of the 2nd and 1st millennia BC. e.
Language
The Khorezmian language, which belongs to the Iranian group of the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family, was related to the Sogdian language and Pahlavi. The Khwarezmian language fell into disuse by at least the 13th century, when it was gradually replaced by Persian for the most part, as well as several dialects of Turkic. According to the Tajik historian B. Gafurov, in the 13th century, Turkic speech prevailed over Khorezm in Khorezm. According to Ibn Battuta, Khorezm in the first half of the 14th century was already Turkic-speaking.
Literature
Khorezmian literature, along with Sogdian (Iranian languages), is considered the most ancient in Central Asia. After the conquest of the region in the 8th century by the Arabs, the Persian language began to spread, after which all Eastern Iranian dialects, including Khorezmian, were inferior to the Western Iranian dialect, as well as the Turkic language.
See also
Write a review about the article "Khorezmians"
Notes
- C.E. Bosworth, "The Appearance of the Arabs in Central Asia under the Umayyads and the establishment of Islam", in History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Vol. IV: The Age of Achievement: AD 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century, Part One: The Historical, Social and Economic Setting, edited by M. S. Asimov and C. E. Bosworth. Multiple History Series. Paris: UNESCO Publishing, 1998. excerpt from page 23: "Central Asia in the early seventh century, was ethnically, still largely an Iranian land whose people used various Middle Iranian languages. stock and they spoke an Eastern Iranian language called Khwarezmian. The famous scientist Biruni, a Khwarezm native, in his Athar ul-Baqiyah(p. 47) (English)
- Peoples of Russia. Encyclopedia. Editor-in-Chief V.I. Tishkov. Moscow: 1994, p.355
- لغتنامهٔ دهخدا، سرواژهٔ "خوارزم". (Persian.)
- Rapoprot Yu. A., Brief sketch of the history of Khorezm in ancient times. // Aral region in antiquity and the Middle Ages. Moscow: 1998, p.28
- Abu Reyhan Biruni, Selected works. Tashkent, 1957, p.47
- Biruni. Collection of articles edited by S. P. Tolstov. Moscow-Leningrad: publishing house of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1950, p. 15
- USSR. Chronology- article from.
- Gafurov B. G., Tajiks. Book two. Dushanbe, 1989, p.288
- Uzbeks- article from the Great Soviet Encyclopedia.
- Rapoprot Yu. A., Brief sketch of the history of Khorezm in ancient times. // Aral region in antiquity and the Middle Ages. Moscow: 1998, p.29
- Encyclopedia Iranica, "The Chorasmian Language", D.N.Mackenzie. Online access at June, 2011: (English)
- Andrew Dalby, Dictionary of Languages: the definitive reference to more than 400 languages, Columbia University Press, 2004, pg 278
- MacKenzie, D. N. "Khwarazmian Language and Literature," in E. Yarshater ed. Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. III, Part 2, Cambridge 1983, pp. 1244-1249 (English)
- (Retrieved on December 29, 2008) (English)
- Gafurov B. G., Tajiks. Book two. Dushanbe, 1989, p.291
- Ibn Battuta and his travels in Central Asia. M. Science. 1988, pp.72-74
Excerpt characterizing the Khorezmians
By ten o'clock twenty people had already been carried away from the battery; two guns were broken, shells hit the battery more and more often, and long-range bullets flew in, buzzing and whistling. But the people who were at the battery did not seem to notice this; Cheerful talk and jokes were heard from all sides.- Chinenka! - the soldier shouted at the approaching grenade flying with a whistle. - Not here! To the infantry! – another added with laughter, noticing that the grenade flew over and hit the covering ranks.
- What, friend? - another soldier laughed at the man who crouched under the flying cannonball.
Several soldiers gathered at the rampart, looking at what was happening ahead.
“And they took off the chain, you see, they went back,” they said, pointing across the shaft.
“Mind your job,” the old non-commissioned officer shouted at them. “We’ve gone back, so it’s time to go back.” - And the non-commissioned officer, taking one of the soldiers by the shoulder, pushed him with his knee. There was laughter.
- Roll towards the fifth gun! - they shouted from one side.
“At once, more amicably, in the burlatsky style,” the cheerful cries of those changing the gun were heard.
“Oh, I almost knocked off our master’s hat,” the red-faced joker laughed at Pierre, showing his teeth. “Eh, clumsy,” he added reproachfully to the cannonball that hit the wheel and the man’s leg.
- Come on, you foxes! - another laughed at the bending militiamen entering the battery behind the wounded man.
- Isn’t the porridge tasty? Oh, the crows, they slaughtered! - they shouted at the militia, who hesitated in front of the soldier with a severed leg.
“Something else, kid,” they mimicked the men. – They don’t like passion.
Pierre noticed how after each cannonball that hit, after each loss, the general revival flared up more and more.
As if from an approaching thundercloud, more often and more often, lighter and brighter, lightning of a hidden, flaring fire flashed on the faces of all these people (as if in rebuff to what was happening).
Pierre did not look forward to the battlefield and was not interested in knowing what was happening there: he was completely absorbed in the contemplation of this increasingly flaring fire, which in the same way (he felt) was flaring up in his soul.
At ten o'clock the infantry soldiers who were in front of the battery in the bushes and along the Kamenka River retreated. From the battery it was visible how they ran back past it, carrying the wounded on their guns. Some general and his retinue entered the mound and, after talking with the colonel, looked angrily at Pierre, went down again, ordering the infantry cover stationed behind the battery to lie down so as to be less exposed to shots. Following this, a drum and command shouts were heard in the ranks of the infantry, to the right of the battery, and from the battery it was visible how the ranks of the infantry moved forward.
Pierre looked through the shaft. One face in particular caught his eye. It was an officer who, with a pale young face, walked backwards, carrying a lowered sword, and looked around uneasily.
The rows of infantry soldiers disappeared into the smoke, and their prolonged screams and frequent gunfire could be heard. A few minutes later, crowds of wounded and stretchers passed from there. Shells began to hit the battery even more often. Several people lay uncleaned. The soldiers moved more busily and more animatedly around the guns. Nobody paid attention to Pierre anymore. Once or twice they shouted at him angrily for being on the road. The senior officer, with a frowning face, moved with large, fast steps from one gun to another. The young officer, flushed even more, commanded the soldiers even more diligently. The soldiers fired, turned, loaded, and did their job with tense panache. They bounced as they walked, as if on springs.
A thundercloud had moved in, and the fire that Pierre had been watching burned brightly in all their faces. He stood next to the senior officer. The young officer ran up to the elder officer, with his hand on his shako.
- I have the honor to report, Mr. Colonel, there are only eight charges, would you order to continue firing? – he asked.
- Buckshot! - Without answering, the senior officer shouted, looking through the rampart.
Suddenly something happened; the officer gasped and, curled up, sat down on the ground, like a shot bird in flight. Everything became strange, unclear and cloudy in Pierre’s eyes.
One after another, the cannonballs whistled and hit the parapet, the soldiers, and the cannons. Pierre, who had not heard these sounds before, now only heard these sounds alone. To the side of the battery, on the right, the soldiers were running, shouting “Hurray,” not forward, but backward, as it seemed to Pierre.
The cannonball hit the very edge of the shaft in front of which Pierre stood, sprinkled earth, and a black ball flashed in his eyes, and at the same instant it smacked into something. The militia who had entered the battery ran back.
- All with buckshot! - the officer shouted.
The non-commissioned officer ran up to the senior officer and in a frightened whisper (as a butler reports to his owner at dinner that there is no more wine required) said that there were no more charges.
- Robbers, what are they doing! - the officer shouted, turning to Pierre. The senior officer's face was red and sweaty, his frowning eyes sparkling. – Run to the reserves, bring the boxes! - he shouted, angrily looking around Pierre and turning to his soldier.
“I’ll go,” said Pierre. The officer, without answering him, walked in the other direction with long steps.
– Don’t shoot... Wait! - he shouted.
The soldier, who was ordered to go for the charges, collided with Pierre.
“Eh, master, this is not the place for you,” he said and ran downstairs. Pierre ran after the soldier, going around the place where the young officer was sitting.
One, another, a third cannonball flew over him, hitting in front, from the sides, from behind. Pierre ran downstairs. "Where am I going?" - he suddenly remembered, already running up to the green boxes. He stopped, undecided whether to go back or forward. Suddenly a terrible shock threw him back to the ground. At the same instant, the brilliance of a large fire illuminated him, and at the same instant a deafening thunder, crackling and whistling sound rang in his ears.
Pierre, having woken up, was sitting on his backside, leaning his hands on the ground; the box he was near was not there; only green burnt boards and rags were lying on the scorched grass, and the horse, shaking its shaft with fragments, galloped away from him, and the other, like Pierre himself, lay on the ground and squealed shrilly, protractedly.
Pierre, unconscious from fear, jumped up and ran back to the battery, as the only refuge from all the horrors that surrounded him.
While Pierre was entering the trench, he noticed that no shots were heard at the battery, but some people were doing something there. Pierre did not have time to understand what kind of people they were. He saw the senior colonel lying with his back to him on the rampart, as if examining something below, and he saw one soldier he noticed, who, breaking forward from the people holding his hand, shouted: “Brothers!” – and saw something else strange.
But he had not yet had time to realize that the colonel had been killed, that the one shouting “brothers!” There was a prisoner who, in front of his eyes, was bayoneted in the back by another soldier. As soon as he ran into the trench, a thin, yellow, sweaty-faced man in a blue uniform, with a sword in his hand, ran at him, shouting something. Pierre, instinctively defending himself from the push, since they ran away from each other without seeing each other, put out his hands and grabbed this man (it was a French officer) with one hand by the shoulder, with the other by the proud. The officer, releasing his sword, grabbed Pierre by the collar.
For several seconds, they both looked with frightened eyes at faces alien to each other, and both were at a loss about what they had done and what they should do. “Am I taken prisoner or is he taken prisoner by me? - thought each of them. But, obviously, the French officer was more inclined to think that he had been taken prisoner, because Pierre’s strong hand, driven by involuntary fear, squeezed his throat tighter and tighter. The Frenchman wanted to say something, when suddenly a cannonball whistled low and terribly above their heads, and it seemed to Pierre that the French officer’s head had been torn off: he bent it so quickly.
Pierre also bowed his head and let go of his hands. Without thinking any more about who took whom prisoner, the Frenchman ran back to the battery, and Pierre went downhill, stumbling over the dead and wounded, who seemed to him to be catching his legs. But before he had time to go down, dense crowds of fleeing Russian soldiers appeared towards him, who, falling, stumbling and screaming, ran joyfully and violently towards the battery. (This was the attack that Ermolov attributed to himself, saying that only his courage and happiness could have accomplished this feat, and the attack in which he allegedly threw the St. George crosses that were in his pocket onto the mound.)
The capital is moved to the city of Urgench.
Pre-Achaemenid period
Archaeological excavations document on the territory of ancient Khorezm the existence of the Neolithic Kelteminar culture of ancient fishermen and hunters (4th -3rd millennium BC). The direct descendant of this culture is that dating back to the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. Tazabagyab culture of the Bronze Age, pastoral and agricultural. There are also reports from ancient authors about the contacts of the inhabitants of Khorezm with the peoples of Colchis on trade routes along the Amu Darya and the Caspian Sea, along which Central Asian and Indian goods went to the Caucasian possessions through the Euxine Pontus (Εὔξενος Πόντος - the ancient Greek name for the Black Sea). This is confirmed by material culture, elements of which are found in excavations of ancient monuments in the Central Asian Mesopotamia and the Caucasus.
Since the sites of the Suyargan culture, like part of the Tazabagyab ones, are located on takyrs lying above buried dunes, there is reason to believe that around the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. There was a drainage of this area, possibly associated with the breakthrough of the Amu Darya through the western section of Sultan-Uizdag and the formation of the modern channel. Perhaps the secondary settlement caused by these changes in the geography of the upper delta of the Amu Darya is associated with the colonization movement of the southern tribes, who encountered here the tribes of the environs of the South Khorezm lake and, judging by the signs of Tazabagyab influence in the ceramics of the Suyargan and later Amirabad culture, assimilated with them. There is every reason to believe that these tribes constituted the eastern branch of the peoples of the Japhetic system of languages, to which modern Caucasian peoples(Georgians, Circassians, Dagestanis, etc.) and to which the creators of the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia, Syria and Asia Minor belonged.
During this period, many fortified cities with powerful walls and towers were erected, representing a single system of fortresses that protected the border of the oasis from the desert. A huge number of loopholes, each of which fires only at a narrow space, due to which a special archer had to stand at each loophole, suggests that the entire people were still armed and the leading role was played not by a professional army, but by a massive people’s militia. Around 175 BC. n. e. Khorezm became part of Kangyuy.
In the last third of the 1st century BC. e. Khorezm, as part of Kangyuy, acts as a powerful ally of the Western Huns. The power of Khorezm at this time extended far to the north-west. According to the “History of the Younger Han Dynasty”, dating back to the very beginning of the century. e., Khorezm (which is described here as Kangyuy - “country of the Kangls”) subjugates the country of the Alans, which at that time extended from the northern Aral region to the eastern Azov region.
According to sources in the 1st century AD. e. the Khorezmian era was introduced and a new calendar was introduced. According to the great Khorezmian scientist Abu Reyhan al-Biruni (973-1048), the Khorezmian chronology was first introduced in the 13th century BC. e.
It is believed that from the middle of the 1st century AD. e. until the end of the 2nd century, Khorezm was under the influence of the Kushan Kingdom. This period is characterized by fortresses erected by the central government and occupied by garrisons of standing troops. At the beginning of the 4th century, under Padishah Afrig, the city of Kyat became the capital of Khorezm. In the subsequent era, between the 4th and 8th centuries, the cities of Khorezm fell into desolation. Now Khorezm is a country of numerous castles of the aristocracy and thousands of fortified peasant estates. From 995 to 995, Khorezm was ruled by the Afrigid dynasty, whose representatives bore the title of Khorezmshah. Between 567-658 Khorezm was somewhat dependent on the Turkic Khaganate. In Chinese sources it was mentioned under the name Husimi (呼似密).
From the Arab conquest to the Seljuk conquest
The first Arab raids on Khorezm date back to the 7th century. In 712, Khorezm was conquered by the Arab commander Kuteiba ibn Muslim, who carried out a brutal massacre of the Khorezm aristocracy. Kuteiba brought down especially cruel repressions on the scientists of Khorezm. As he writes in the Chronicle past generations"Al-Biruni, "and in all ways, Kuteiba scattered and destroyed everyone who knew the writing of the Khorezmians, who kept their traditions, all the scientists who were among them, so that all this was covered in darkness and there is no true knowledge of what was known from their history during the advent of Islam."
Arab sources say almost nothing about Khorezm in subsequent decades. But from Chinese sources it is known that the Khorezmshah Shaushafar in 751 sent an embassy to China, which was at war with the Arabs at that time. During this period, a short-term political unification of Khorezm and Khazaria took place. Nothing is known about the circumstances of the restoration of Arab sovereignty over Khorezm. In any case, only at the very end of the 8th century, the grandson of Shaushafar adopted the Arabic name of Abdallah and minted the names of Arab governors on his coins.
State of Khorezmshahs
The founder of the new dynasty in Khorezm was the Turk Anush-Tegin, who rose to prominence under the Seljuk Sultan Malik Shah (-). He received the title of Shihne of Khorezm. Since the end of the 11th century, there has been a gradual liberation of Khorezm from the Seljuk protectorate and the annexation of new lands. The ruler of Khorezm, Qutb ad-Din Muhammad I, takes the ancient title of Khorezmshah in 1097. After him, his son Abu Muzaffar Ala ad-din Atsiz (-) ascended the throne. His son Taj ad-Din Il-Arslan in 1157 completely liberated Khorezm from Seljuk tutelage.
Under Khorezmshah Ala ad-Din Tekesh (-), Khorezm turns into a huge empire. In 1194, the army of the Khorezm Shah defeated the army of the last Iranian Seljuk Toghrul Beg and asserted the sovereignty of Khorezm over Iran; in the city of Baghdad, the Caliph Nasir is defeated in a battle with the Khorezmians and recognizes the power of Tekesh over eastern Iraq. Successful campaigns to the east, against the Karakitas, open the way for Tekesh to Bukhara.
In 1512, a new dynasty of Uzbeks, who broke away from the Shaybanids, stood at the head of the independent Khanate of Khorezm.
Initially, the capital of the state was Urgench.
In 1598, the Amu Darya retreated from Urgench and the capital was moved to a new location in Khiva.
Due to a change in the course of the Amu Darya in 1573, the capital of Khorezm was moved to Khiva.
Since the 17th century, in Russian historiography Khorezm began to be called the Khanate of Khiva. The official name of the state was the ancient name - Khorezm.
Khorezm in the second half of the 18th - early 20th centuries
In the 1770s, representatives of the Uzbek Kungrat dynasty came to power in Khorezm. The founder of the dynasty was Muhammad Amin-biy. During this period, masterpieces of Khorezmian architecture were built in the capital Khiva. In 1873, under the reign of Muhammad Rahim Khan II, Khorezm became a vassal of the Russian Empire. The Kungrats ruled until 1920, when, after two wars with Soviet Turkestan, they were overthrown as a result of the victory of the Red Army.
Rulers of Khorezm
Rulers of Khorezm Name Years of reign Titles Siyavushid Dynasty Kaykhusraw approx. - 1140 BC Khorezmshah Saxafar approx. - 517 BC Khorezmshah Farasman approx. - 320 BC Khorezmshah Khusraw approx. 320 BC - ? Khorezmshah Afrigid Dynasty Afrig - ? Khorezmshah Bagra ? Khorezmshah Sahhasak ? Khorezmshah Askajamuk I ? Khorezmshah Askajavar I ? Khorezmshah Sahr I ? Khorezmshah Shaush ? Khorezmshah Hamgari ? Khorezmshah Buzgar ? Khorezmshah Arsamukh ? Khorezmshah Sahr II ? Khorezmshah Sabri ? Khorezmshah Askajavar II ? Khorezmshah Askajamuk II - ? Khorezmshah Shaushafar ? Khorezmshah Turkasabas ? Khorezmshah Abd-Allah ? Khorezmshah Mansur ibn Abd-Allah ? Khorezmshah Iraq ibn Mansur ? Khorezmshah Ahmad ibn Iraq ? Khorezmshah Abu Abd-Allah Muhammad ibn Ahmad ? - Khorezmshah Mamunid Dynasty Abu Ali Mamun ibn Muhammad -
-Emir of Gurganj
KhorezmshahAbu-l-Hasan Ali ibn Mamun - Khorezmshah Ayn ad-Daula Abu-l-Abbas Mamun ibn Ali - Khorezmshah Abu-l-Harith Muhammad Khorezmshah Altuntaş Dynasty Altuntash - Khorezmshah Harun ibn Altuntash - Khorezmshah Ismail ibn Altuntash - Khorezmshah Anushtegin Dynasty (Bekdili) Qutb ad-Din Muhammad I - Khorezmshah Ala ad-Din Atsyz - ,
-Khorezmshah Taj ad-Din Il-Arslan - Khorezmshah Jalal ad-Din Sultan Shah Khorezmshah Ala ad-Din Tekesh - Khorezmshah Ala ad-Din Muhammad II - Khorezmshah Qutb ad-Din Uzlag Shah - Valiahad, Sultan of Khorezm, Khorasan and Mazandaran Jalal ad-Din Manguberdi -
-Sultan of Ghazni, Bamiyan and Ghur
KhorezmshahRukn ad-Din Gursanjti - Sultan of Iraq Ghiyath ad-Din Pir Shah - Sultan of Kerman and Mekran See also
Write a review about the article "Khorezm"
Notes
Literature
- Veselovsky N.I. Essay on historical and geographical information about the Khiva Khanate from ancient times to the present. St. Petersburg, 1877.
- Vinogradov A.V. Millennia buried by the desert. M.: Education, 1966.
- Tolstov S. P. Materials and research on ethnography and anthropology of the USSR, 1946, 2, p. 87-108.
- B. Grozny. Proto-Indian writings and their decoding. Bulletin of Ancient History 2 (11). 1940.
- Tolstov S.P. In the footsteps of the ancient Khorezmian civilization. M.-L.: 1948.
- Kydyrniyazov M.-Sh. Material culture of the cities of Khorezm in the XIII-XIV centuries. Nukus: Karakalpakstan, 1989.
- “Trinity option” No. 60, p. 8 (2010)
Links
- A. Paevsky.
Antiquity Turkic states (2nd century BC -) Persian conquest (-) Islamic conquest (-) Turkic states (-) Mongol conquest (-) New time Modern times Excerpt characterizing Khorezm
Denisov, wrinkling his face, as if smiling and showing his short, strong teeth, began to ruffle his fluffy black thick hair with both hands with short fingers, like a dog.
“Why didn’t I have the money to go to this kg”ysa (the officer’s nickname),” he said, rubbing his forehead and face with both hands. “Can you imagine, not a single one, not a single one?” "You didn't give it.
Denisov took the lit pipe handed to him, clenched it into a fist, and, scattering fire, hit it on the floor, continuing to scream.
- Sempel will give, pag"ol will beat; Sempel will give, pag"ol will beat.
He scattered fire, broke the pipe and threw it away. Denisov paused and suddenly looked cheerfully at Rostov with his sparkling black eyes.
- If only there were women. Otherwise, there’s nothing to do here, just like drinking. If only I could drink and drink.
- Hey, who's there? - he turned to the door, hearing the stopped steps of thick boots with the clanking of spurs and a respectful cough.
- Sergeant! - said Lavrushka.
Denisov wrinkled his face even more.
“Skveg,” he said, throwing away a wallet with several gold pieces. “G’ostov, count, my dear, how much is left there, and put the wallet under the pillow,” he said and went out to the sergeant.
Rostov took the money and, mechanically, putting aside and arranging old and new gold pieces in piles, began to count them.
- A! Telyanin! Zdog "ovo! They blew me away!" – Denisov’s voice was heard from another room.
- Who? At Bykov’s, at the rat’s?... I knew,” said another thin voice, and after that Lieutenant Telyanin, a small officer of the same squadron, entered the room.
Rostov threw his wallet under the pillow and shook the small, damp hand extended to him. Telyanin was transferred from the guard for something before the campaign. He behaved very well in the regiment; but they did not like him, and in particular Rostov could neither overcome nor hide his causeless disgust for this officer.
- Well, young cavalryman, how is my Grachik serving you? – he asked. (Grachik was a riding horse, a carriage, sold by Telyanin to Rostov.)
The lieutenant never looked into the eyes of the person he was talking to; his eyes constantly darted from one object to another.
- I saw you passed by today...
“It’s okay, he’s a good horse,” answered Rostov, despite the fact that this horse, which he bought for 700 rubles, was not worth even half of that price. “She started falling on the left front...,” he added. - The hoof is cracked! It's nothing. I will teach you, show you which rivet to put.
“Yes, please show me,” said Rostov.
“I’ll show you, I’ll show you, it’s not a secret.” And you will be grateful for the horse.
“So I’ll order the horse to be brought,” said Rostov, wanting to get rid of Telyanin, and went out to order the horse to be brought.
In the entryway, Denisov, holding a pipe, huddled on the threshold, sat in front of the sergeant, who was reporting something. Seeing Rostov, Denisov winced and, pointing over his shoulder with his thumb into the room in which Telyanin was sitting, winced and shook with disgust.
“Oh, I don’t like the fellow,” he said, not embarrassed by the sergeant’s presence.
Rostov shrugged his shoulders, as if saying: “Me too, but what can I do!” and, having given orders, returned to Telyanin.
Telyanin was still sitting in the same lazy position in which Rostov had left him, rubbing his small white hands.
“There are such nasty faces,” Rostov thought as he entered the room.
- Well, did they tell you to bring the horse? - Telyanin said, getting up and looking around casually.
- I ordered it.
- Let's go on our own. I just came in to ask Denisov about yesterday’s order. Got it, Denisov?
- Not yet. Where are you going?
“I want to teach a young man how to shoe a horse,” said Telyanin.
They went out onto the porch and into the stables. The lieutenant showed how to make a rivet and went home.
When Rostov returned, there was a bottle of vodka and sausage on the table. Denisov sat in front of the table and cracked his pen on paper. He looked gloomily into Rostov's face.
“I’m writing to her,” he said.
He leaned his elbows on the table with a pen in his hand, and, obviously delighted at the opportunity to quickly say in words everything he wanted to write, expressed his letter to Rostov.
“You see, dg,” he said. “We sleep until we love. We are children of pg’axa... and I fell in love - and you are God, you are pure, as on the pieties day of creation... Who else is this? Drive him to Chog’tu. There’s no time!” he shouted at Lavrushka, who, without any timidity, approached him.
- Who should be? They ordered it themselves. The sergeant came for the money.
Denisov frowned, wanted to shout something and fell silent.
“Skveg,” but that’s the point,” he said to himself. “How much money is left in the wallet?” he asked Rostov.
– Seven new and three old.
“Oh, skveg” but! Well, why are you standing there, stuffed animals, let’s go to the sergeant,” Denisov shouted at Lavrushka.
“Please, Denisov, take the money from me, because I have it,” Rostov said, blushing.
“I don’t like to borrow from my own people, I don’t like it,” Denisov grumbled.
“And if you don’t take the money from me in a friendly manner, you’ll offend me.” “Really, I have it,” Rostov repeated.
- No, no.
And Denisov went to the bed to take out his wallet from under the pillow.
- Where did you put it, Rostov?
- Under the bottom pillow.
- No, no.
Denisov threw both pillows onto the floor. There was no wallet.
- What a miracle!
- Wait, didn’t you drop it? - said Rostov, lifting the pillows one by one and shaking them out.
He threw off and shook off the blanket. There was no wallet.
- Have I forgotten? No, I also thought that you were definitely putting a treasure under your head,” said Rostov. - I put my wallet here. Where is he? – he turned to Lavrushka.
- I didn’t go in. Where they put it is where it should be.
- Not really…
– You’re just like that, throw it somewhere, and you’ll forget. Look in your pockets.
“No, if only I hadn’t thought about the treasure,” said Rostov, “otherwise I remember what I put in.”
Lavrushka rummaged through the entire bed, looked under it, under the table, rummaged through the entire room and stopped in the middle of the room. Denisov silently followed Lavrushka’s movements and, when Lavrushka threw up his hands in surprise, saying that he was nowhere, he looked back at Rostov.
- G "ostov, you are not a schoolboy...
Rostov felt Denisov’s gaze on him, raised his eyes and at the same moment lowered them. All his blood, which was trapped somewhere below his throat, poured into his face and eyes. He couldn't catch his breath.
“And there was no one in the room except the lieutenant and yourself.” “Here somewhere,” said Lavrushka.
“Well, you little doll, get around, look,” Denisov suddenly shouted, turning purple and throwing himself at the footman with a threatening gesture. “You better have your wallet, otherwise you’ll burn.” Got everyone!
Rostov, looking around Denisov, began to button up his jacket, strapped on his saber and put on his cap.
“I tell you to have a wallet,” Denisov shouted, shaking the orderly by the shoulders and pushing him against the wall.
- Denisov, leave him alone; “I know who took it,” Rostov said, approaching the door and not raising his eyes.
Denisov stopped, thought and, apparently understanding what Rostov was hinting at, grabbed his hand.
“Sigh!” he shouted so that the veins, like ropes, swelled on his neck and forehead. “I’m telling you, you’re crazy, I won’t allow this.” The wallet is here; I'll take the shit off this mega-dealer, and he'll be here.
“I know who took it,” Rostov repeated in a trembling voice and went to the door.
“And I’m telling you, don’t you dare do this,” Denisov shouted, rushing to the cadet to hold him back.
But Rostov snatched his hand away and with such malice, as if Denisov were his greatest enemy, directly and firmly fixed his eyes on him.
- Do you understand what you are saying? - he said in a trembling voice, - there was no one in the room except me. Therefore, if not this, then...
He couldn't finish his sentence and ran out of the room.
“Oh, what’s wrong with you and with everyone,” were the last words that Rostov heard.
Rostov came to Telyanin’s apartment.
“The master is not at home, they have left for headquarters,” Telyanin’s orderly told him. - Or what happened? - added the orderly, surprised at the upset face of the cadet.
- No, nothing.
“We missed it a little,” said the orderly.
The headquarters was located three miles from Salzenek. Rostov, without going home, took a horse and rode to headquarters. In the village occupied by the headquarters there was a tavern frequented by officers. Rostov arrived at the tavern; at the porch he saw Telyanin's horse.
In the second room of the tavern the lieutenant was sitting with a plate of sausages and a bottle of wine.
“Oh, and you’ve stopped by, young man,” he said, smiling and raising his eyebrows high.
“Yes,” said Rostov, as if it was worth pronouncing this word. a lot of work, and sat down at the next table.
Both were silent; There were two Germans and one Russian officer sitting in the room. Everyone was silent, and the sounds of knives on plates and the lieutenant’s slurping could be heard. When Telyanin finished breakfast, he took a double wallet out of his pocket, pulled apart the rings with his small white fingers curved upward, took out a gold one and, raising his eyebrows, gave the money to the servant.
“Please hurry,” he said.
The gold one was new. Rostov stood up and approached Telyanin.
“Let me see your wallet,” he said in a quiet, barely audible voice.
With darting eyes, but still raised eyebrows, Telyanin handed over the wallet.
“Yes, a nice wallet... Yes... yes...” he said and suddenly turned pale. “Look, young man,” he added.
Rostov took the wallet in his hands and looked at it, and at the money that was in it, and at Telyanin. The lieutenant looked around, as was his habit, and suddenly seemed to become very cheerful.
“If we’re in Vienna, I’ll leave everything there, but now there’s nowhere to put it in these crappy little towns,” he said. - Well, come on, young man, I’ll go.
Rostov was silent.
- What about you? Should I have breakfast too? “They feed me decently,” Telyanin continued. - Come on.
He reached out and grabbed the wallet. Rostov released him. Telyanin took the wallet and began to put it in the pocket of his leggings, and his eyebrows rose casually, and his mouth opened slightly, as if he was saying: “yes, yes, I’m putting my wallet in my pocket, and it’s very simple, and no one cares about it.” .
- Well, what, young man? - he said, sighing and looking into Rostov’s eyes from under raised eyebrows. Some kind of light from the eyes, with the speed of an electric spark, ran from Telyanin’s eyes to Rostov’s eyes and back, back and back, all in an instant.
“Come here,” Rostov said, grabbing Telyanin by the hand. He almost dragged him to the window. “This is Denisov’s money, you took it...” he whispered in his ear.
– What?... What?... How dare you? What?...” said Telyanin.
But these words sounded like a plaintive, desperate cry and a plea for forgiveness. As soon as Rostov heard this sound of the voice, a huge stone of doubt fell from his soul. He felt joy and at the same moment he felt sorry for the unfortunate man standing in front of him; but it was necessary to complete the work begun.
“People here, God knows what they might think,” Telyanin muttered, grabbing his cap and heading into a small empty room, “we need to explain ourselves...
“I know this, and I will prove it,” said Rostov.
- I…
Telyanin's frightened, pale face began to tremble with all its muscles; the eyes were still running, but somewhere below, not rising to Rostov’s face, sobs were heard.
“Count!... don’t ruin the young man... this poor money, take it...” He threw it on the table. – My father is an old man, my mother!...
Rostov took the money, avoiding Telyanin’s gaze, and, without saying a word, left the room. But he stopped at the door and turned back. “My God,” he said with tears in his eyes, “how could you do this?”
“Count,” said Telyanin, approaching the cadet.
“Don’t touch me,” Rostov said, pulling away. - If you need it, take this money. “He threw his wallet at him and ran out of the tavern.In the evening of the same day, there was a lively conversation between the squadron officers at Denisov’s apartment.
“And I’m telling you, Rostov, that you need to apologize to the regimental commander,” said a tall staff captain with graying hair, a huge mustache and large features of a wrinkled face, turning to the crimson, excited Rostov.
Staff captain Kirsten was demoted to soldier twice for matters of honor and served twice.
– I won’t allow anyone to tell me that I’m lying! - Rostov screamed. “He told me I was lying, and I told him he was lying.” It will remain so. He can assign me to duty every day and put me under arrest, but no one will force me to apologize, because if he, as a regimental commander, considers himself unworthy of giving me satisfaction, then...
- Just wait, father; “Listen to me,” the captain interrupted the headquarters in his bass voice, calmly smoothing his long mustache. - In front of other officers, you tell the regimental commander that the officer stole...
“It’s not my fault that the conversation started in front of other officers.” Maybe I shouldn’t have spoken in front of them, but I’m not a diplomat. Then I joined the hussars, I thought that there was no need for subtleties, but he told me that I was lying... so let him give me satisfaction...
- This is all good, no one thinks that you are a coward, but that’s not the point. Ask Denisov, does this look like something for a cadet to demand satisfaction from the regimental commander?
Denisov, biting his mustache, listened to the conversation with a gloomy look, apparently not wanting to engage in it. When asked by the captain's staff, he shook his head negatively.
“You tell the regimental commander about this dirty trick in front of the officers,” the captain continued. - Bogdanych (the regimental commander was called Bogdanych) besieged you.
- He didn’t besiege him, but said that I was telling a lie.
- Well, yes, and you said something stupid to him, and you need to apologize.
- No way! - Rostov shouted.
“I didn’t think this from you,” the captain said seriously and sternly. “You don’t want to apologize, but you, father, not only before him, but before the entire regiment, before all of us, you are completely to blame.” Here's how: if only you had thought and consulted on how to deal with this matter, otherwise you would have drunk right there, in front of the officers. What should the regimental commander do now? Should the officer be put on trial and the entire regiment be soiled? Because of one scoundrel, the whole regiment is disgraced? So, what do you think? But in our opinion, not so. And Bogdanich is great, he told you that you are telling lies. It’s unpleasant, but what can you do, father, they attacked you yourself. And now, as they want to hush up the matter, because of some kind of fanaticism you don’t want to apologize, but want to tell everything. You are offended that you are on duty, but why should you apologize to an old and honest officer! No matter what Bogdanich is, he’s still an honest and brave old colonel, it’s such a shame for you; Is it okay for you to dirty the regiment? – The captain’s voice began to tremble. - You, father, have been in the regiment for a week; today here, tomorrow transferred to adjutants somewhere; you don’t care what they say: “there are thieves among the Pavlograd officers!” But we care. So, what, Denisov? Does it matter?
Denisov remained silent and did not move, occasionally glancing at Rostov with his shining black eyes.
“You value your own fanabery, you don’t want to apologize,” the headquarters captain continued, “but for us old men, how we grew up, and even if we die, God willing, we will be brought into the regiment, so the honor of the regiment is dear to us, and Bogdanich knows this.” Oh, what a road, father! And this is not good, not good! Be offended or not, I will always tell the truth. Bad!
And the headquarters captain stood up and turned away from Rostov.
- Pg "avda, chog" take it! - Denisov shouted, jumping up. - Well, G'skeleton! Well!
Rostov, blushing and turning pale, looked first at one officer, then at the other.
- No, gentlemen, no... don’t think... I really understand, you’re wrong to think about me like that... I... for me... I’m for the honor of the regiment. So what? I will show this in practice, and for me it is an honor to the banner... well, anyway, really, it’s my fault!.. - Tears stood in his eyes. - I’m guilty, I’m guilty all around!... Well, what else do you need?...
“That’s it, Count,” the captain of staff shouted, turning around, hitting him on the shoulder with his big hand.
“I’m telling you,” Denisov shouted, “he’s a nice little guy.”
“That’s better, Count,” the headquarters captain repeated, as if for his recognition they were beginning to call him a title. - Come and apologize, your Excellency, yes sir.
“Gentlemen, I’ll do everything, no one will hear a word from me,” Rostov said in a pleading voice, “but I can’t apologize, by God, I can’t, whatever you want!” How will I apologize, like a little one, asking for forgiveness?
Denisov laughed.
- It's worse for you. Bogdanich is vindictive, you will pay for your stubbornness,” said Kirsten.
- By God, not stubbornness! I can’t describe to you what a feeling, I can’t...
“Well, it’s your choice,” said the headquarters captain. - Well, where did this scoundrel go? – he asked Denisov.
“He said he was sick, and the manager ordered him to be expelled,” Denisov said.
“It’s a disease, there’s no other way to explain it,” said the captain at the headquarters.
“It’s not a disease, but if he doesn’t catch my eye, I’ll kill him!” – Denisov shouted bloodthirstyly.
Zherkov entered the room.
- How are you? - the officers suddenly turned to the newcomer.
- Let's go, gentlemen. Mak surrendered as a prisoner and with the army, completely.
- You're lying!
- I saw it myself.
- How? Have you seen Mack alive? with arms, with legs?
- Hike! Hike! Give him a bottle for such news. How did you get here?
“They sent me back to the regiment again, for the devil’s sake, for Mack.” The Austrian general complained. I congratulated him on Mak’s arrival... Are you, Rostov, from the bathhouse?
- Here, brother, we have such a mess for the second day.
The regimental adjutant came in and confirmed the news brought by Zherkov. We were ordered to perform tomorrow.
- Let's go, gentlemen!
- Well, thank God, we stayed too long.Kutuzov retreated to Vienna, destroying behind him bridges on the rivers Inn (in Braunau) and Traun (in Linz). On October 23, Russian troops crossed the Enns River. Russian convoys, artillery and columns of troops in the middle of the day stretched through the city of Enns, on this side and on the other side of the bridge.
The day was warm, autumn and rainy. The vast perspective that opened up from the elevation where the Russian batteries stood protecting the bridge was suddenly covered with a muslin curtain of slanting rain, then suddenly expanded, and in the light of the sun objects as if covered with varnish became visible far away and clearly. A town could be seen underfoot with its white houses and red roofs, a cathedral and a bridge, on both sides of which masses of Russian troops poured, crowding. At the bend of the Danube one could see ships, an island, and a castle with a park, surrounded by the waters of the Ensa confluence with the Danube; one could see the left rocky bank of the Danube covered with pine forests with the mysterious distance of green peaks and blue gorges. The towers of the monastery were visible, protruding from behind a pine forest that seemed untouched; far ahead on the mountain, on the other side of Ens, enemy patrols could be seen.
Between the guns, at a height, the chief of the rearguard, a general, and a retinue officer stood in front, examining the terrain through a telescope. Somewhat behind, Nesvitsky, sent from the commander-in-chief to the rearguard, sat on the trunk of a gun.
The Cossack accompanying Nesvitsky handed over a handbag and a flask, and Nesvitsky treated the officers to pies and real doppelkümel. The officers joyfully surrounded him, some on their knees, some sitting cross-legged on the wet grass.
- Yes, this Austrian prince was not a fool to build a castle here. Nice place. Why don't you eat, gentlemen? - Nesvitsky said.
“I humbly thank you, prince,” answered one of the officers, enjoying talking with such an important staff official. - Wonderful place. We walked past the park itself, saw two deer, and what a wonderful house!
“Look, prince,” said the other, who really wanted to take another pie, but was ashamed, and who therefore pretended that he was looking around the area, “look, our infantry have already climbed there.” Over there, in the meadow outside the village, three people are dragging something. “They will break through this palace,” he said with visible approval.
“Both,” said Nesvitsky. “No, but what I would like,” he added, chewing the pie in his beautiful, moist mouth, “is to climb up there.”
He pointed to a monastery with towers visible on the mountain. He smiled, his eyes narrowed and lit up.
- But that would be good, gentlemen!
The officers laughed.
- At least scare these nuns. Italians, they say, are young. Really, I would give five years of my life!
“They’re bored,” said the bolder officer, laughing.
Meanwhile, the retinue officer standing in front was pointing something out to the general; the general looked through the telescope.
“Well, so it is, so it is,” the general said angrily, lowering the receiver from his eyes and shrugging his shoulders, “and so it is, they will hit the crossing.” And why are they hanging around there?
On the other side, the enemy and his battery were visible to the naked eye, from which milky white smoke appeared. Following the smoke, a distant shot was heard, and it was clear how our troops hurried to the crossing.
Nesvitsky, puffing, stood up and, smiling, approached the general.
- Would your Excellency like to have a snack? - he said.
“It’s not good,” said the general, without answering him, “our people hesitated.”
– Shouldn’t we go, Your Excellency? – said Nesvitsky.
“Yes, please go,” said the general, repeating what had already been ordered in detail, “and tell the hussars to be the last to cross and light the bridge, as I ordered, and to inspect the flammable materials on the bridge.”
“Very good,” answered Nesvitsky.
He called to the Cossack with the horse, ordered him to remove his purse and flask, and easily threw his heavy body onto the saddle.
“Really, I’ll go see the nuns,” he said to the officers, who looked at him with a smile, and drove along the winding path down the mountain.
- Come on, where will it go, captain, stop it! - said the general, turning to the artilleryman. - Have fun with boredom.
- Servant to the guns! - the officer commanded.
And a minute later the artillerymen ran out cheerfully from the fires and loaded.
- First! - a command was heard.
Number 1 bounced smartly. The gun rang metallic, deafening, and a grenade flew whistling over the heads of all our people under the mountain and, not reaching the enemy, showed with smoke the place of its fall and burst.
The faces of the soldiers and officers brightened at this sound; everyone got up and began observing the visible movements of our troops below and in front of us - the movements of the approaching enemy. At that very moment the sun completely came out from behind the clouds, and this beautiful sound of a single shot and the shine of the bright sun merged into one cheerful and cheerful impression.Two enemy cannonballs had already flown over the bridge, and there was a crush on the bridge. In the middle of the bridge, having dismounted from his horse, pressed with his thick body against the railing, stood Prince Nesvitsky.
This is my first blog post about Uzbekistan, but this region is so rich in history that it’s scary to think about. The most interesting thing is that in many places there, entire cities that are more than 1000 years old have been preserved in their original form. Let's look at one such city.
Khiva - in ancient times - Khorasmia, later known as Khvarezmi - Khorezm, in the past a large khanate in the west of Central Asia, south of the Aral Sea. Currently, this is the territory of Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan.
Khiva was not originally the capital of Khorezm. Historians say that in 1598, the Amu Darya (a large river whose source is in the Pamirs, at an altitude of 2495 km) retreated from the former capital Urgench (formerly Gurganj). The Amu Darya, flowing through the territory of the Khanate, flowed into the Caspian Sea along an old channel known as the Uzboy, supplying the inhabitants with water, as well as providing a waterway to Europe. Over the centuries, the river radically changed its course several times. The last turn of the Amu Darya at the end of the 16th century destroyed Gurganj. At a distance of 150 km from modern Khiva, near the village of Kunya-Urgench (territory of Turkmenistan), which means “old Urgench,” there are the ruins of the ancient capital.
Khorezm more than once repulsed such famous opponents as Alexander the Great, and in 680 the Arabs of Qutayba ibn Muslim. They attacked Gurganj, but could not completely subjugate the Khanate. Only the united armies of Genghis Khan managed to win. After a six-month siege, they destroyed the dams, and the Amu Darya flooded Gurganj. The city was razed to the ground, 100 thousand inhabitants were killed, and each warrior received 24 prisoners. And only 200 years later the capital of Khorezm was rebuilt again. Tamerlane raided Khorezm five times, but only in 1388 did he manage to completely conquer it
According to legend, an old man dying of thirst in the desert hit his staff and saw a well of water at the site of the impact. Surprised, he exclaimed "Hey Wah!" and founded a city at the well. However, the toponym "Khivak", or "Khiva", belongs to a group of geographical names, the initial form of which has changed greatly over time. According to some scientists, the name of the city, which grew up in the middle of the 1st millennium BC on the bank of a canal, became a derivative of the oikonym Heikanik (or Keikanik), which meant: “A city located on the bank of great water,” i.e. a canal diverted from the river.
Clickable, Panorama
According to another version (proposed by philologist Ibrahim Karimov), the toponym Khiva is derived from the ancient Alan “khiauv” - fortress. He also suggests that the Alans are ancient Khorezmians who migrated several centuries ago to the North Caucasus.
The centuries-old history of Khiva is inextricably linked with fate Khorezm. Periods of upswing, when Khorezm became the head of powerful state formations, alternated with severe falls, when its cities and villages perished from devastating enemy invasions.
It is noteworthy that in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The city in its final form developed according to the traditional plan of a flat city: a rectangle elongated from north to south, dissected crosswise along the axes by the main streets. Its dimensions - 650x400 m - are in the proportions of the "golden section", beloved by architects from all over the world. The dimensions of the settlements studied by archaeologists indicate that even then their builders knew the basics of applied geometry.
Khiva was first mentioned in written sources of the 10th century. as a small city located on the caravan road between Merv and Urgench (modern Kunya-Urgench). This advantageous position makes Khiva a significant trading center. Especially great value it acquires in the 18th century, when it becomes the capital of Khorezm (Khanate of Khiva). However, already in the 18th century, feudal fragmentation, dynastic unrest, and enmity with neighboring tribes and states weakened the country. And only in early XIX century, after the establishment of the Kungrat dynasty, Khiva emerged as a significant cultural center.
Clickable
The most ancient part of Khiva is Shakhristan (city) Ichan-Kala, surrounded by walls that were repeatedly destroyed and rebuilt. At the western gate of Ichan-Kala (currently non-existent) is located Kunya-Ark, an old fortress with the remains of the Akshih-Baba castle, which was once the core of the city. The arch consisted of several courtyards, each of which united a specific group of buildings. Of these, only Kurnysh Khana(reception room of the khan), a summer mosque, a mint and a later harem building. The mosque and reception room (1825-1842) attract attention ivans with wooden columns and walls covered with majolica cladding.
The part of Ichan-Kala that is located along the road leading from the western to the eastern gates is especially rich in buildings. The buildings here are concentrated without any architectural design. Some groups of buildings form building masses in which individual buildings merge with each other in their volumes. Only wide arched openings or portals define individual buildings. High walls, light corner turrets, domes, minarets, light ivans with wooden columns create unexpected silhouettes everywhere.
No other city has brought to us in such preservation an entire part of Shakhristan, like Ichan-Kala in Khiva. This is a historical and architectural reserve that gives an idea of the feudal Central Asian city.
There are almost no buildings left from the time of the initial rise of Khiva.
Of the surviving architectural structures of Khiva, the most ancient is the sheikh’s mausoleum Sayyid Allauddin(XIV century). Initially, the mausoleum consisted of one room with a small portal. Then it was added to the tomb ziarat khan. The entrance to the tomb was sealed, and the opening in its wall, from the side of the ziarat-khana, was widened. In 1957, during restoration, the building was given, as far as possible, its original appearance.
The mausoleum houses an excellent majolica tombstone. It consists of a pedestal with corner columns supporting a powerful slab with two "sagana"(lancet completion of Muslim tombstones). Light relief is stamped on the facing tiles of the tombstone. It is painted in small floral pattern blue, dark blue, pistachio and white colors. The beauty of the patterns, the composition and tonality of the painting, and the transparency of the glaze place this ceramic decor among the best examples of the art of majolica cladding of the 14th century. Apparently the original one was very modest and small Mausoleum of Pakhlavan Mahmud, poet, folk hero, who died in the first quarter of the 14th century. The halo of glory of this hero, considered the patron of the city, attracted admirers. A whole cemetery with many family tombs was created around his mausoleum.
At the beginning of the 19th century, construction of the tomb of the Khiva rulers began near this complex. Premises were added to the mausoleum of Pahlavan Mahmud, into which the graves of previously deceased khans were transferred.
In 1825, the interiors of all premises of the Pakhlavan Mahmud complex were completely covered with majolica with typical Khiva patterns, and the domes of the building were covered with turquoise tiles. The dome of the mausoleum, glistening with greenish glaze, attracts attention from a distance. The excellent majolica of the interior decor of the Pakhlavan Mahmud complex places it among the outstanding architectural monuments. At the beginning of the 20th century, other buildings and an iwan on carved wooden columns were erected in front of the funeral complex.
The architecture of the Friday mosque in Khiva is unusual - Juma mosques, built in the 18th century. Blank brick walls without any divisions or decorations form a building measuring 55 x 46 m. The ceiling is supported by 212 wooden columns, 16 of which date back to the 11th-14th centuries. Unique carvings decorate their trunks and capitals. The composition of the mosque is unique - blank walls and a flat ceiling create a large but low volume of the building, which is adjoined by a minaret (18th century) that contrasts with it with its high trunk. A mosque with its minaret and several nearby madrasahs decorate the square along the main highway of Ichan-Kala.
One of the busiest places in Khiva was the square at the eastern gate Palvan-Darvaza. Here, back in the 17th century, were built baths of Anush Khan and one-story building Khojamberdybiya madrasah. In 1804-1812 a two-story madrasah was built opposite the Khojamberdybiya madrasah Kutlug-Murad-inaka. The madrasah had 81 hudjras and was one of the largest buildings in Khiva. Its portal with a pentagonal niche and alabaster stalactites is decorated more richly than the facades of earlier madrassas in the city. The corner towers with lanterns are decorated with glazed and terracotta tiles with stamped patterns. The tympanums of the two-story arched galleries are filled with majolica. The interiors are almost devoid of decor.
Despite its large size, the Kutlug-Murad-inak madrasah does not achieve the monumentality characteristic of many Bukhara monuments. It is simpler in planning and volumetric composition, poorer in decorative decoration.
In 1806, a long gallery with trading premises covered with domes was added to the Palvan-Darvaza gate. At this gate, which closed the busiest street, Allakuli-khane(1825-1842) the trading life of the city was concentrated. Here buildings were erected close to one another. The saturation of buildings was so great that some of them protruded beyond the walls of Ichan-Kala. So, for example, to place Allakuli Khan madrasah the city wall was destroyed. Its leveled debris formed the basis for a new building, to which a ramp led, dividing the Khojamberdybiy madrasah into two parts, like a saddle bag - Khurjum- why it received the name “Khurjum”. The building has a small height and does not block the monumental main facade of the Allakuli Khan Madrasah with its slender portal. Its exterior decoration is dominated by majolica.
Clickable
In the 1st half of the 19th century, trade flourished especially in Khiva under Allakuli Khan. Busy and varied (including slave) markets were located at and beyond the eastern gate. Near the gate of Palvan-Darvaza was built caravanserai, like a madrasah, its volume extends beyond the walls of Ichan-Kala. A covered gallery was attached to its main facade - a passage (tim). In the complex of buildings at the eastern gate of Palvan-Darvaza in 1830-1838. The palace of Allakuli Khan was erected - Tash-hauli. The entire building is made of baked bricks. High walls with towers and gates are similar to fortifications. The palace consists of residential and official premises united by several courtyards.
Among them - harem, mihmankhana for the Khan's receptions, arzkhana- court, auxiliary and service premises, passages. The complexity of the plan is explained by the different periods of construction of the palace. All the ivans facing the courtyards are richly decorated: majolica cladding covers the walls, carvings cover the wooden columns and their marble bases, paintings cover the wooden ceilings. Folk ornamental traditions are perfectly embodied here. This is how the chain of buildings near the Palvan-Darvaza gate ended: the Palvan-Darvaza gallery, the Allakuli Khan madrasah, the team, the caravanserai, and on the other side of the square - Tash-Khauli, the Kutlug-Murad-inak madrasah. From the south the area was limited by a small building Ak-mosque, surrounded on three sides by an ivan (1838-1842). Located behind the mosque Anush Khan bathhouse(XVII century), the premises of which are immersed in the ground and protrude only as domes.
The complex of all buildings was created as vital needs arose. Outwardly, it is not perceived as a whole artistic ensemble, but is distinguished by its picturesque architectural masses and variety of silhouettes. Other ensembles were also formed in Ichan-Kala. So, south of Kunya-Ark in 1851-1852. was built Amin Khan madrasah, and in 1871 east of Kunya-Ark - Seyyid Mohammed Rahim Khan II madrasah, which formed the centers of two architectural ensembles. Amin Khan Madrasah is the largest in Khiva. The unfinished minaret, the diameter of which is 14.2 m, is laid out only to a height of 26 m, which is why the name became established behind it Kalta Minar(short minaret). The side facades of the madrasah are enlivened by an arcade of loggias on the second floor. At the corners of the facades there are turrets characteristic of Khiva with openings at the top, belts of green glazed brick and domes lined with the same brick. The high portal of the main facade is decorated with majolica and patterns of colored glazed bricks. The minaret is decorated with belts of geometric patterns made of colored bricks.
In 1910 Islam-Khojoy was built the tallest in Khiva there is a minaret (about 50 m), dominating all the buildings of Ichan-Kala. A small madrasah building and a mosque were built near the minaret. The minaret is faced with special patterned bricks, alternating with belts of multi-colored majolica.
The mentioned architectural monuments do not exhaust full list all the wonderful buildings of the city. In numerous buildings, although not unique, constructive and artistic principles Khiva construction. Of great value in them is the decorative decoration carried out in folk traditions: wood carving and majolica cladding. Monumental buildings on the outskirts of Khiva, Dishan-Kale such as a palace Nurulla-bai, are not typical for this part of the city. In contrast to Ichan-Kala, there are many ponds and greenery. Numerous mass residential developments are distinguished by an interesting volumetric-spatial composition, in which ivans serve as a necessary component. Columns, beams, doors and other wooden parts are often decorated with magnificent carvings. The people's dwelling here preserves and develops the artistic traditions of Khiva architecture.
When the capital was moved to a new location, it was undoubtedly one of the worst periods in the history of Khorezm. But over time, the Khanate blossomed again, and in a short period Khiva became the spiritual center of the Islamic world. So, in 1598, Khiva became the main city of the Khiva Khanate; it was a small fortified town with a 10-century history. The legend of its origin tells that the city grew up around the well of Heivak, the water from which had an amazing taste, and the well was dug by order of Shem, the son of the biblical Noah. In Ichan-Kala (inner city of Khiva) you can still see this well today.
Russia annexed part of the Khanate of Khiva in 1873 (in part because the slave trade in Khiva caused fear in southern Russia: Turkmen raiders kidnapped peasants and sold them in bazaars in Khiva and Bukhara). In 1919, units of the Red Army overthrew the power of the last Khan of Khiva. In 1920, Khiva became the capital of the Khorezm Soviet People's Republic, and in 1924 the lands of the Khorezm oasis became part of the Uzbek and Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republics, which became independent in 1991.
In the 9th-12th centuries, in addition to many Islamic educational institutions, large centers of science successfully operated in Khorezm: astronomy, mathematics, medicine, chemistry, etc. The “House of Wisdom,” in fact, the Academy of Sciences, which was created in Baghdad by the then ruler Al-Mamun, was led by a native of Khorezm, Muhammad al-Khorezmi. Already in the 9th century, his fundamental works on mathematics, geography, and geodesy were known in Europe and have not lost their significance to this day. Huge scientific heritage left by al-Beruni, Agakhi, Najmiddin Kubro and other scientists and theologians, whose names are also associated with Khorezm.
The word “Khiva” that has come down to us is known from Arabic geographical works of the 10th century as the name of one of the settlements on the caravan route between Gurganch (now Kunya Urgench) and Merv (now Mary); earlier information about the city is unknown.
Khorezm of the 10th century is the burden of the titans of thought and science Abu Raikhan Beruni (973-1048), Abu Ali ibn Sina (980-1037), the time of prosperity of the “Academy” of Khorezmshah Mamun.
Historians have preserved testimonies about the people of Khorezm at that time: “They are hospitable people, lovers of food, brave and strong in battle; they have peculiarities and amazing properties,” wrote Makdisi.
In the history of Khorezm, the 10th century was marked by the rapid economic growth of the country, the growth in the number of cities, and the development of urban planning and architecture. Historical chronicles list the ignorance of more than 30 cities located in the lower Amu Darya basin. Among the ancient cities, perhaps only Khiva steadfastly continued to exist as a city.
Khiva is located on a flat zone, on the border of the desert. Initially, a well with drinking water predetermined the emergence of a settlement. The formation of the city was undoubtedly preceded by the construction of the Heikanik canal from the Amu Darya, which served not only to irrigate a vast territory, but also to supply water to all settlements that arose along its route.
The Heikanik Canal existed in the ancient period. It is now known under the name Palvanyan (Palnan-aryk). In the Khiva chronicles of the 19th century. Heikanik is often referred to distortedly as Heivanik. Heikanik is an archaic name, the meaning of which has long been forgotten among the people.
Obviously, there is an etymological connection between the names of the Heikanik canal and the city of Khiva (Kheva), for the chain of words Heikanik - Heivanik - Kheivak - Kheva - Khiva seems to indicate the unity of their roots. However, in the 1831 manuscript “The Heart of Rarities,” the historian-chronicler Khudaiberdy Koshmuhammed writes that “Khiva is the name of a man.”
Many names in the toponymy of Khorezm, like the history of the country, are a mystery. So the word “Khiva” still remains a mystery of history. However, the word “Khorezm” is shrouded in the same mystery. The etymological interpretation of the word “Khorezm” is closest to the truth - the land of the sun.
According to ancient chronicles, Khiva was still a fairly large city with a beautiful and well-appointed cathedral mosque back in the 10th century.
One of the medieval travelers who visited many countries of the East, after visiting Central Asia at the beginning of the 13th century. left the following observations: “I don’t think that anywhere in the world there were vast lands wider than the Khorezm ones and more populated, despite the fact that the inhabitants are accustomed to a difficult life and contentment with few.
Most of the villages of Khorezm are cities with markets, supplies and shops. How rare it is to find villages without a market. All this with general safety and complete serenity...
Undoubtedly, the city of Khiva was among the prosperous cities that the Arab traveler and scientist Yakut Hamavi spoke so admiringly about.
In the XIII century. Khorezm fell under the onslaught of the hordes of Genghis Khan. Khiva stood up against the enemy. The patriotic sons died the death of the brave. Later, a mausoleum was built over the grave of the city’s defenders.
Khiva has stood the test of time, but the continuous existence of the city in one place, the need to renovate old buildings, the demand for living spaces mercilessly destroyed everything that was dilapidated, outdated and unnecessary.
That is why in modern Khiva most of the monuments date back to the 18th-19th centuries. Earlier monuments are rare, and the archeology of the city has not yet been studied.
Khiva became the capital of the state only in 1556 under Dusthan ibn Bujchi. However, its intensive development began under Arabmuhammedkhan (1602-1623), when they began to build monumental structures.
Among the monuments of the 17th century. The Arabmuhammed madrasah (1616) and the mosque and baths of Anushakhan (1657) stand out in particular.
The economic and political crises in the country, the kaleidoscopic diversity in the change of authorities - the “game of khans” (“khonbozi”), in general, had a detrimental effect on the well-being of Khorezm. The capture of Khiva by Iranian troops in 1740 led to the ruin of the country.
Clickable
The plague epidemic of 1768 in Khorezm claimed many lives. The cities are empty. Khiva and neighboring cities suffered especially, emphasizes the poet-historian Munis.
“There are only 40 families left in Khiva... Inside the city it is overgrown with tamarisk and thorns, and predatory animals have taken up residence in the houses.”
In 1770, ruler Muhammad Amin inak managed to put an end to civil strife and unite the lands of Khorezm. From this time on, the “foundation of a new Khiva” began (academician V.V. Bartold).
Clickable
Numerous monumental monuments of Khiva arose in the 19th century. This was a period of relative growth in culture, expansion of construction and folk crafts.
Khiva is an amazing museum of Khorezm architecture of the 18th-20th centuries.
In the inner city - Ichan-Kale - ensembles and complexes of monumental buildings are concentrated, in a dense environment of mass residential development. A unique monument of the city is the multi-column Juma Mosque (late 18th century). It preserves wooden columns of early buildings (X-XVI centuries).
Each of these columns opens separate pages of the history of development architectural form, ornament and carving technique. From the 14th century The mausoleum of Said Alauddin and the Baghbanli mosque have been preserved. In the XVII - early XVIII centuries. Many religious educational institutions were erected: Arabmuhammed madrasah (1616), Khurjum madrasah (1688), Shergazikhan madrasah (1719-1726). From the monuments of the 19th century. Particularly interesting are the Kutlug-Murad inak madrasah (1804-1812), the complex of the mausoleum of Pakhlavan Mahmud (1810-1835), the madrasah (1834-1935), the caravanserai and team of Allakulikhan, the Muhammad-Aminkhan madrasah (1851-1855). gg.), palace ensembles of Kukhna-Ark (first half of the 19th century) and Tashkhauli (1831-1841).
The antiquity of the traditions of architecture and art can be traced not only in monuments material culture Khorezm. The architectural and construction terminology that exists among the population of Khorezm differs in many respects from the terms of the neighboring regions - Bukhara, Samarkand and Tashkent.
In the everyday life of the Khorezm Uzbeks, certain ancient Turkic architectural and construction terms have been preserved, which have long been forgotten or replaced in the Uzbek literary language. Thus, the word “kerpich” mentioned in the “Collection of Turkic dialects” by Mahmud of Kashgar (11th century), in Alisher Navoi’s “brick”, identical to the Russian with “brick”, exists in the Khorezm dialect to this day as “kerpich”, “kervich”.
Khiva can rightfully be proud of its great sons.
Khiva campaign
Clickable, panorama
Clickable, panorama
Clickable, panorama
Photo by Proskudin-Gorsky
Clickable 2000 px
Trips around the Khorezm region of Uzbekistan and the Republic of Karakalpakistan, or Northern Khorezm, a region that is undoubtedly interesting with the most amazing monuments, will be extremely eventful.
There are especially many monuments of the ancient period in Karakalpakstan. This is the settlement of Gyaur-kala (IV century BC - IV century AD) and a fortress with the same name, but located at a great distance from each other. Dakhma Chilpik (I-IV centuries BC - IX-XI centuries AD) - a place of ceremonial assuar burial of Zoroastrians, Mizdakhkan (IV centuries BC - XIV centuries AD) - a complex of ancient and medieval settlements. The ancient settlements of Toprak-kala (I century AD - IV century AD), Guldursun (IV - III centuries BC), Akhshakhan-kala (IV century BC - IV century AD ), a fortress and at the same time the temple of Koykrylgan-kala (IV century BC - IV century AD), the fire temple of Tashkyrman-Tepe (IV-III century BC - III-IV century AD), a beautiful pearl Khiva. In the city of Urgench, visit the museum and monument to Avesta, because many scientists agree that this holy book was written precisely in Khorezm.
If you find yourself in Urgench or Nukus, and you are interested in ancient history, do not think about which direction to go. You can go to any of the four cardinal directions - there are monuments of Zoroastrianism everywhere here. Or at least the ruins are the unforgettable remains of a great religion and civilization of wise thinkers and astrologers, philosophers and magicians.
AVESTA is the sacred book of Zoroastrianism, the pre-Islamic religion of the ancient peoples of Turan and Iran, which for the first time in human history proclaimed the idea of monotheism. Thanks to her, evidence of our ancestors’ understanding of the structure of the universe has reached us from time immemorial. The name "Avesta" means something like "Basic saying".
The creator of the book is Zoroaster, as his name sounds in Greek, Zarathushtra (Zarathustra) - in Iranian and Pahlavi, or Zardusht, in the language of the inhabitants of Central Asia. He is the prophet of Ahura Mazda - the supreme deity of the Zoroastrian religion, born either in Iran or in Khorezm.
The son of Pourushaspa, from the clan of Spitama, Zarathushtra is known primarily from the Gathas - the seventeen great hymns that he composed. These hymns were faithfully preserved by his followers. The Gathas are not a collection of teachings, but inspired, passionate sayings, many of which are addressed to God. "In truth there are two primary spirits - these are twins, famous for their opposites. In thought, in word and in action, they are both good and evil. When these two spirits first grappled, they created being and non-being. And what awaits in the end, for those who follow the path of lies, the worst awaits, and for those who follow the path of good, the best awaits. And of these two spirits, one, following lies, chose evil, and the other is the brightest spirit, clothed in the strongest. stone, chose righteousness, and let everyone know this, who will constantly please Ahura Mazda with righteous deeds (Yasna, 30.3). The main disaster of humanity is death. It forces the souls of people to leave the material world and return during the era of “Mixing”. for some time into an imperfect immaterial state."
Zoroaster believed that every soul, upon parting with the body, is judged for what it did during its life. He taught that both women and men, and servants, and masters can dream of paradise, and the “barrier of times” - the transition from one world to another - the “Bridge Destroyer”, became his revelation, the place of judgment, where the verdict is on every soul depends not on many and generous sacrifices during earthly life, but on its moral achievements.
The thoughts, words, and deeds of each soul are weighed on the scales: good ones on one scale, bad ones on the other. If there are more good deeds and thoughts, then the soul is considered worthy of heaven. If the scales lean towards evil, then the bridge narrows and becomes the edge of a blade. The sinner experiences “a long century of suffering, bad food and sorrowful dreams (Yasna, 32, 20).
Zoroaster was the first to teach about the judgment of every person, about heaven and hell, about the future resurrection of bodies, about the universal Last Judgment and about the eternal life of the reunited soul and body.
These instructions were subsequently adopted by the religions of mankind, they were borrowed from Judaism, Christianity and Islam.
According to Zoroaster, the salvation of each person depends on his thoughts, words and deeds, in which no deity can interfere and change, out of compassion or at his own whim. In such a teaching, belief in the Day of Judgment fully receives its terrifying meaning: each person must be responsible for the fate of his own soul and share responsibility for the fate of the world.
AVESTA says: “Marakanda is the second of the best places and countries...” The first is Khorezm (not within modern borders, but in the bosom of Tedjen and.).” Anahita (locally - Nana) - Mother - Earth - goddess of the sedentary. Mithra - the Swift-footed Sun - God of nomadic tribes. The main hypostasis of Mithras is Truth, because without truth, without comradeship, one cannot win in battle. “He who lies to Mithra will not gallop away on horseback...” Worship of Truth, reaching the point of religiosity, worship of Friendship is the eternal law of nomads.
The immortal spirit and history of the people are manifested in culture and art, which determine the unique appearance of any nation and clearly reflect its unique characteristics.
And therefore, the whole world knows the art of the people of Khorezm, in which the motifs of the ancient AVESTA are embodied. A monumental monument was erected to this greatest book in Urgench.
But, let's remember other monuments of a bygone civilization and visit the Chilpyk dakhma. It is located on the right bank of the Amu Darya, on the top of a conical hill-remnant up to forty meters high. Today, many secrets and legends of the Zoroastrians hover over the Chilpik dakhma. When Vayu, the God of Death, comes, the body of the deceased is taken to the dakhma. Dakhma is a place where Zoroastrians took the dead to cleanse the remains of soft coverings.
And Ahura Mazda said:
“Put the body on the highest of places,
Higher than the wolf and the fox,
Not flooded with rain water.”
Dakhma Chilpyk has the shape of an irregular circle with a diameter of sixty to eighty meters. Its fifteen-meter walls still protect ritual burials founded by Zoroastrians.
Along the perimeter of the wall there was a sufa - a place where the dead were laid for purification.
In order not to defile the water and earth with decomposition, the bodies were left to be devoured by wild animals, birds of prey and the sun. After cleansing, the bones were placed in ossuaries, special containers for remains, and buried in the ground or in crypts - nauss. This method of burial was the most important aspect of faith in Ahura Mazda - the highest purity of thoughts, words and deeds, strict faith in the purity of nature.
An ancient legend says that Chilpyk was once a fortified castle. A princess lived in it, in love with a slave and who fled here from the wrath of her father. Another legend says that this fortress was built by the hero Chilpyk. While building the castle, he dropped clay, from which the hill on which the dakhma stands was formed.
Third, that Dakhma is the work of Deva Haji Muluk, the enemy of Ahura Mazda, who led eternal struggle with light forces.
The ancient city of Mizdakhkan is located in the Khojayli region of Karakalpakstan, two dozen kilometers from Nukus. It arose 400 years BC. On the eastern hill of the settlement there is a necropolis. Since the ninth century AD, it began to serve as a burial place for Muslims. And before that, ancient Zoroastrians performed rituals on the hill. Like nowhere else, layers of time intertwined here, and a crossroads of civilizations was formed.
Near the Mizdakhkan necropolis, which itself is interesting for its medieval buildings - Nazlym Khan Sulu, Shamun Nabi, on the western hill there is the ancient settlement of Gyaur-kala. Founded three hundred years BC, it existed for almost a century, surviving the rise and fall of the Kushan state... Gyaur-kala was the largest city of ancient Khorezm, once called Airyan Vejo. The Daitii, the modern Amu Darya, flowed nearby. Archaeological finds of household utensils and pottery products indicate the prosperity of crafts in Gyaur-Kale. Irrigations and canals tell us that the Avestans had excellent knowledge of land irrigation. Behind the powerful walls of Gyaur-kala lived people who preached the ideas of Zarathushtra, the Prophet of Zoroastrianism.
Vertragna - the God of victory was the patron of the fortress-city, another Gyaur-kala, which was known from the fourth century BC and stood almost until the 13th century AD. It was a border fortress that blocked the road for enemies from the north to the territory of upper Khorezm. Its powerful walls are cut through by two rows of arrow-shaped loopholes, behind which Zoroastrian warriors took cover, repelling the enemy. And now, when the sacred fire - the son of Ahura Mazda - flares up in the altar of the “Rich Hall”, the shadows of long-gone warriors appear. Ethereal, they continue to guard the impregnable fortress of Gyaur-kala.
And only against the Oxus (Amu Darya) did the fortress not withstand. Its walls were washed away by a violent river.
“The warriors call on Mithra, bending towards the horses’ manes, asking for health, and strength for the horses in their harnesses. And so that they can defeat all hostile enemies and every enemy...” The impregnable fifteen-meter walls of Gyaur-kala are made of clay bricks, measuring forty by forty and ten centimeters thick.
And although they are almost two and a half thousand years old, they are still strong to this day, as if they were built quite recently.
Covered in glory and desert winds, there stands the eternal and formidable symbol of Zoroastrianism - the Gyaur-Kala fortress, which has survived centuries.
The site of Toprak-kala, or “Earth City,” is still surrounded by fertile lands that are cultivated by farmers in the Turtkul region of Karakalpakstan.
Toprak-kala appeared in the first century AD. Its inhabitants revered the powerful Ardvi - the goddess of fertility or, in other words, the mighty Amu Darya. Toprak-kala is surrounded by powerful walls nine meters high. One of the city blocks was entirely occupied by temple buildings. Behind the palace complex there was a city of commoners, protected by a wall with quadrangular towers. High priests and rulers often visited him. More often this happened on the holiday of the revival of nature - Navruz. The city was two-tiered. Now only fragments remain of the city walls. About a hundred rooms on the first floor and several buildings on the second floor survived. The sky turns crimson. Pictures of the past appear like visions. A sacred fire flares up in the former sanctuaries. Sacred rites and mysteries are performed again.
Sculptures and bas-reliefs of kings and warriors reflect the military glory and fortune of the victors who lived in this city.
Avestan priests with barsmans in their hands conduct liturgies in honor of Ahura Mazda and Zoroaster. This is how the majestic city of Toprak-kala appears, which has retained its grandeur to this day.
And Ahura Mazda said:
“Don't touch! The three-mouthed serpent of Dahak,
Fire Ahura - Mazda
To this, inaccessible,
If you encroach,
Then I will destroy you
The Guldursun-kala settlement has been known since the fourth century BC. It is an irregular rectangle that stretches for more than five hundred meters from east to west and more than three hundred meters from north to south.
Its ancient walls and towers are made of pakhsa and mud bricks. As in all Zoroastrian buildings, standard brick sizes are used: forty by forty and ten centimeters thick.
The fifteen-meter fortress walls are well preserved. The outrigger towers were connected to the city by underground passages. The powerful fortification of the fortress allowed the city to stand for almost a century and repel all the attacks of invaders. And only the fierce conquerors of Genghis Khan in the fourteenth century managed to break the resistance of Guldursun.
According to an ancient legend, it bore the name “Gulistan” - “flower garden of roses”, until its inhabitants were betrayed by a beautiful princess, giving her love to the enemy... And then it began to be called a “cursed place”... The grandiose ruins of Guldursun are covered in legends and tales . There was a belief that an underground passage to innumerable treasures was hidden in the fortress. But the treasure guarded by the dragon will certainly lead to the death of anyone who encroaches on Guldursun’s treasures.
Zoroastrians are called fire worshipers. They sacredly revered the codes and rituals prescribed by the great prophet of Fire - Spitama Zarathushtra. The knowledge he received from Mazda, the Highest Wisdom, is still alive in the customs and rituals of modern people.
And Ahura Mazda said:
"Oh, faithful Zarathushtra,
My name is Questioned
and Truth, and Reason, and Teaching."
Koi-Krylgan-kala, translated as the fortress of dead rams, appeared in the fourth century BC. This is an outstanding monument of the funerary and astral cults of ancient Khorezm.
Initially it was a round two-story building with a diameter of about forty-five meters. The main temple was surrounded by two walls, spaced fifteen meters from the central building, with a shooting gallery.
The ground floor housed rooms for religious ceremonies. These halls are two isolated complexes. In the upper rooms there were temple utensils and terracotta statues of the Gods.
The priests descended along two staircases opposite each other from the second floor shooting gallery.
Koi-Krylgan-kala experienced two periods of existence. At first it was a fortified tomb-temple. Funeral ceremonies were performed in it. But, most importantly, astronomical observations were carried out here.
During the period of desolation it was used by artisans, in particular potters. And in empty rooms they kept ossuaries with the remains of the dead.
