Writing activity, as mentioned in this is an interesting creative process with its own characteristics, tricks and subtleties. And one of the most effective ways to highlight a text from the general mass, giving it uniqueness, unusualness and the ability to arouse genuine interest and the desire to read it in full are literary writing techniques. They have been used at all times. First, directly by poets, thinkers, writers, authors of novels, stories and other works of art. Nowadays, they are actively used by marketers, journalists, copywriters, and indeed all those people who from time to time need to write bright and memorable text. But with the help of literary techniques, you can not only decorate the text, but also give the reader the opportunity to more accurately feel what exactly the author wanted to convey, to look at things from a perspective.

It doesn’t matter whether you are writing texts professionally, taking your first steps in writing, or creating good text It just appears on the list of your responsibilities from time to time; in any case, it is necessary and important to know what literary techniques a writer has. The ability to use them is a very useful skill that can be useful to everyone, not only in writing texts, but also in ordinary speech.

We invite you to familiarize yourself with the most common and effective literary techniques. Each of them will be supplied a shining example for a more precise understanding.

Literary devices

Aphorism

• “To flatter is to tell a person exactly what he thinks about himself” (Dale Carnegie)
• “Immortality costs us our lives” (Ramon de Campoamor)
• “Optimism is the religion of revolutions” (Jean Banville)

Irony

Irony is a mockery in which true meaning is put in contrast to the real meaning. This creates the impression that the subject of the conversation is not what it seems at first glance.

• A phrase said to a slacker: “Yes, I see you are working tirelessly today.”
• A phrase said about rainy weather: “The weather is whispering”
• A phrase said to a man in a business suit: “Hey, are you going for a run?”

Epithet

An epithet is a word that defines an object or action and at the same time emphasizes its peculiarity. Using an epithet, you can give an expression or phrase a new shade, make it more colorful and vibrant.

• Proud warrior, be steadfast
• Suit fantastic colors
• beauty girl unprecedented

Metaphor

Metaphor is an expression or word based on the comparison of one object with another based on their common feature, but used in figuratively.

• Nerves of steel
• The rain is drumming
• Eyes on my forehead

Comparison

A comparison is a figurative expression that connects various objects or phenomena with the help of some common features.

• Evgeny went blind for a minute from the bright light of the sun as if mole
• My friend's voice reminded creak rusty door loops
• The mare was frisky How flaming fire bonfire

Allusion

An allusion is a special figure of speech that contains an indication or hint of another fact: political, mythological, historical, literary, etc.

• You are right great schemer(reference to the novel by I. Ilf and E. Petrov “The Twelve Chairs”)
• They made the same impression on these people as the Spaniards had on the Indians of South America (reference to historical fact conquest of South America by conquistadors)
• Our trip could be called “The Incredible Travels of Russians in Europe” (a reference to the film by E. Ryazanov “The Incredible Adventures of Italians in Russia”)

Repeat

Repetition is a word or phrase that is repeated several times in one sentence, giving additional semantic and emotional expressiveness.

• Poor, poor little boy!
• Scary, how scared she was!
• Go, my friend, go ahead boldly! Go boldly, don’t be timid!

Personification

Personification is an expression or word used in a figurative sense, through which the properties of animate ones are attributed to inanimate objects.

• Blizzard howls
• Finance sing romances
• Freezing painted windows with patterns

Parallel designs

Parallel constructions are voluminous sentences that allow the reader to create an associative connection between two or three objects.

• “The waves splash in the blue sea, the stars sparkle in the blue sea” (A.S. Pushkin)
• “A diamond is polished by a diamond, a line is dictated by a line” (S.A. Podelkov)
• “What is he looking for in a distant country? What did he throw in his native land? (M.Yu. Lermontov)

Pun

A pun is a special literary device in which, in the same context, different meanings of the same word (phrases, phrases) that are similar in sound are used.

• The parrot says to the parrot: “Parrot, I’ll scare you.”
• It was raining and my father and I
• “Gold is valued by its weight, but by pranks - by the rake” (D.D. Minaev)

Contamination

Contamination is the creation of one new word by combining two others.

• Pizzaboy - pizza delivery man (Pizza (pizza) + Boy (boy))
• Pivoner – beer lover (Beer + Pioneer)
• Batmobile – Batman's car (Batman + Car)

Streamlines

Streamlined expressions are phrases that do not express anything specific and hide the author’s personal attitude, veil the meaning or make it difficult to understand.

• We will change the world for the better
• Acceptable losses
• It's neither good nor bad

Gradations

Gradations are a way of constructing sentences in such a way that homogeneous words in them increase or decrease their semantic meaning and emotional coloring.

• “Higher, faster, stronger” (Yu. Caesar)
• Drop, drop, rain, downpour, it’s pouring like a bucket
• “He was worried, worried, going crazy” (F.M. Dostoevsky)

Antithesis

Antithesis is a figure of speech that uses rhetorical opposition between images, states, or concepts that are interconnected by a common semantic meaning.

• “Now an academician, now a hero, now a navigator, now a carpenter” (A.S. Pushkin)
• “He who was nobody will become everything” (I.A. Akhmetyev)
• “Where there was a table of food, there is a coffin” (G.R. Derzhavin)

Oxymoron

An oxymoron is a stylistic figure that is considered a stylistic error - it combines incompatible (opposite in meaning) words.

• Living Dead
• Hot ice
• The beginning of the end

So, what do we see in the end? The number of literary devices is amazing. In addition to those we have listed, we can also name such as parcellation, inversion, ellipsis, epiphora, hyperbole, litotes, periphrasis, synecdoche, metonymy and others. And it is this diversity that allows anyone to apply these techniques everywhere. As already mentioned, the “sphere” of application of literary techniques is not only writing, but also oral speech. Supplemented with epithets, aphorisms, antitheses, gradations and other techniques, it will become much brighter and more expressive, which is very useful in mastering and development. However, we must not forget that the abuse of literary techniques can make your text or speech pompous and not as beautiful as you would like. Therefore, you should be restrained and careful when using these techniques so that the presentation of information is concise and smooth.

For a more complete assimilation of the material, we recommend that you, firstly, familiarize yourself with our lesson on, and secondly, pay attention to the manner of writing or speech outstanding personalities. There are examples huge amount: from ancient Greek philosophers and poets to the great writers and rhetoricians of our time.

We will be very grateful if you take the initiative and write in the comments about what other literary techniques of writers you know, but which we have not mentioned.

We would also like to know if reading this material was useful for you?

What makes fiction different from other types of texts? If you think that this is a plot, then you are mistaken, because lyric poetry is a fundamentally “plotless” area of ​​literature, and prose is often plotless (for example, a prose poem). Initial “entertainment” is also not a criterion, since in various eras fiction performed functions that were very far from entertainment (and even the opposite of it).

“Artistic techniques in literature are, perhaps, the main attribute that characterizes fiction.”

Why are artistic techniques needed?

Techniques in literature are intended to give the text

• various expressive qualities,
• originality,
• identify the author’s attitude to what is written,
• and also to convey some hidden meanings and connections between parts of the text.

At the same time, outwardly no new information does not seem to be introduced into the text, because main role play various ways combinations of words and parts of phrases.

Artistic techniques in literature are usually divided into two categories:

• trails,
• figures.

A trope is the use of a word in an allegorical, figurative sense. The most common trails:

• metaphor,
• metonymy,
• synecdoche.

Figures are ways of syntactically organizing sentences that differ from the standard arrangement of words and give the text one or another additional meaning. Examples of figures include

• antithesis (opposition),
• internal rhyme,
• isocolon (rhythmic and syntactic similarity of parts of the text).

But there is no clear boundary between figures and paths. Techniques such as

• comparison,
• hyperbola,
• litotes, etc.

Literary devices and the emergence of literature

Most artistic techniques generally originate from primitive

• religious ideas,
• will accept
• superstitions

The same can be said about literary techniques. And here the distinction between tropes and figures takes on a new meaning.

The trails are directly related to ancient magical beliefs and rituals. First of all, this is the imposition of a taboo on

• name of the item,
• animal,
• pronouncing a person's name.

It was believed that when designating a bear by its direct name, one could bring it upon the one who pronounces this word. This is how they appeared

• metonymy,
• synecdoche

(bear – “brown”, “muzzle”, wolf – “gray”, etc.). These are euphemisms (“decent” replacement for an obscene concept) and dysphemisms (“obscene” designation of a neutral concept). The first is also associated with a system of taboos on certain concepts (for example, the designation of genital organs), and the prototypes of the second were originally used to avoid the evil eye (according to the ideas of the ancients) or to etiquettely humiliate the named object (for example, oneself before a deity or a representative of a higher class). Over time, religious and social ideas were “debunked” and subjected to a kind of profanation (that is, the removal of sacred status), and paths began to play an exclusively aesthetic role.

The figures appear to have a more “mundane” origin. They could serve the purpose of memorizing complex speech formulas:

• rules
• laws,
• scientific definitions.

Similar techniques are still used in children's educational literature, as well as in advertising. And their most important function is rhetorical: to draw increased public attention to the content of the text by deliberately “violating” strict speech norms. These are

• rhetorical questions
• rhetorical exclamations
• rhetorical appeals.

”Prototype fiction in the modern understanding of the word there were prayers and spells, ritual chants, as well as performances by ancient orators.”

Many centuries have passed, “magic” formulas have lost their power, but on a subconscious and emotional level they continue to influence a person, using our inner understanding of harmony and orderliness.

Video: Visual and expressive means in literature

ARTISTIC TALENT human ability, manifested in artistic creativity, a socially determined unique unity of emotional and intellectual characteristics An artist's artistic talent differs from a genius (see Artistic genius), which opens up new directions in art. Artistic talent determines the nature and possibilities of creativity, the type of art (or several types of art) chosen by the artist, the range of interests and aspects of the artist’s relationship to reality. At the same time, the artistic talent of an artist is unthinkable without an individual method and style as stable principles for the artistic embodiment of ideas and plans. The individuality of the artist is manifested not only in the work itself, but also exists as a prerequisite for the creation of this work. The artistic talent of an artist can be realized in specific socio-economic and political conditions. Certain eras in history human society create the most favorable conditions for the development and realization of artistic talent (classical antiquity, Renaissance, Muslim Renaissance in the East).

Recognition of the determining importance of socio-economic and political conditions, as well as the spiritual atmosphere in the realization of artistic talent, does not at all mean their absolutization. The artist is not only a product of the era, but also its creator. An essential property of consciousness is not only reflection, but also transformation of reality. For the realization of artistic talent, the subjective aspects of ability to work, the artist’s ability to mobilize all his emotional, intellectual and volitional forces are of great importance.

PLOT(French sujet subject) way artistic comprehension, organization of events (i.e. artistic transformation of the plot). The specificity of a particular plot is clearly revealed not only when comparing it with the real life story, which served as its basis, but also when comparing descriptions human life in documentary and fiction, memoirs and novels. The distinction between the event basis and its artistic reproduction dates back to Aristotle, but a conceptual distinction between the terms was undertaken only in the 20th century. In Russia, the word “plot” has long been synonymous with the word “theme” (in the theory of painting and sculpture, it is still often used in this meaning).

In relation to literature at the end of the last century, it began to mean a system of events, or, according to the definition of A. N. Veselovsky, the sum of motives (i.e., what is in another terminological tradition usually called the plot). Scientists of the Russian “formal school” proposed to consider the plot as a processing, giving form to the primary material - the plot (or, as it was formulated in the later works of V. B. Shklovsky, the plot is a way of artistic comprehension of reality).

The most common way to transform the plot is to destroy the inviolability of the time series, rearrange events, and parallel development of action. A more complex technique is the use of nonlinear connections between episodes. This is a “rhyme”, an associative roll call of situations, characters, sequence of episodes. The text can be based on a collision of different points of view, a comparison of mutually exclusive options for the development of the narrative (A. Murdoch’s novel “The Black Prince”, A. Kayat’s film “Married Life”, etc.). Central theme can develop simultaneously on several levels (social, family, religious, artistic) in the visual, color, and sound ranges.

Some researchers believe that the motivations, the system of internal connections of the work, and methods of narration do not belong to the area of ​​plot, but to composition in the strict sense of the word. The plot is considered as a chain of depicted movements, gestures of spiritual impulses, spoken or “thought” words. In unity with the plot, it formalizes the relationships and contradictions of the characters between themselves and the circumstances, that is, the conflict of the work. In modernist art there is a tendency towards plotlessness (abstract art in painting, plotless ballet, atonal music, etc.).

Plot is important in literature and art. The system of plot connections reveals conflicts and characters of action, which reflect the great problems of the era.

METHODS OF AESTHETIC ANALYSIS (from the Greek methodos - path of research, theory, teaching) - specification of the basic principles of materialist dialectics in relation to the study of nature artistic creativity, aesthetic and artistic culture, various forms of aesthetic development of reality.

The leading principle of analysis of various spheres of aesthetic development of reality is the principle of historicism, most fully developed in the field of the study of arts. It involves both the study of art in connection with its conditioning by reality itself, the comparison of artistic phenomena with non-artistic ones, the identification social characteristics, determining the development of art, as well as the disclosure of systemic and structural formations within art itself, regarding the independent logic of artistic creativity.

Along with philosophical and aesthetic methodology, which has a certain categorical apparatus, modern aesthetics also uses a variety of techniques, analytical approaches of special sciences, which have an auxiliary value mainly in the study of formalized levels of artistic creativity. Appeal to particular methods and tools of particular sciences (semiotics, structural-functional analysis, sociological, psychological, information approaches, mathematical modeling, etc.) corresponds to the nature of modern scientific knowledge, but these methods are not identical to the scientific methodology of art research, they are not “ analogue of the object” (F. Engels) and cannot claim to be a philosophical and aesthetic method adequate to the nature of the aesthetic development of reality.

CONCEPTUAL ART one of the types of artistic avant-gardeism of the 70s. It is associated with the third stage in the development of avant-gardeism, the so-called. neo-avant-gardeism.

Supporters of conceptual art deny the need to create artistic images (for example, in painting they should be replaced by inscriptions of uncertain content), and see the functions of art in activating the process of purely intellectual co-creation by using concepts.

Products of conceptual art are thought of as absolutely devoid of representation; they do not reproduce s.-l. properties of real objects, being the results of mental interpretation. For the philosophical justification of conceptual art, an eclectic mixture of ideas borrowed from the philosophy of Kant, Wittgenstein, the sociology of knowledge, etc. is used. As a phenomenon of a crisis socio-cultural situation, the new movement is associated with petty-bourgeois anarchism and individualism in the sphere of the spiritual life of society.

CONSTRUCTIVISM (from Latin constructio - construction, construction) - a formalist trend in Soviet art of the 20s, which put forward a program for restructuring the entire artistic culture of society and art, focusing not on imagery, but on the functional, constructive expediency of forms.

Constructivism became widespread in Soviet architecture 20-30s, as well as in other forms of art (cinema, theater, literature). Almost simultaneously with Soviet constructivism, the constructivist movement called. Neoplasticism arose in Holland, and similar trends took place in the German Bauhaus. For many artists, constructivism was just a stage in their creativity.

Constructivism is characterized by the absolutization of the role of science and the aestheticization of technology, the belief that science and technology are the only means of solving social and cultural problems.

The constructivist concept went through a number of stages in its development. What the constructivists had in common was: an understanding of a work of art as a material construction created by the artist; the struggle for new forms of artistic labor and the desire to master the aesthetic possibilities of design. At the final stage of its existence, constructivism entered the period of canonization of its characteristic formal-aesthetic techniques. As a result, the aesthetic possibilities of technical structures, the discovery of which was the undoubted merit of the “pioneers of design,” were absolutized. Constructivists did not take into account the fact that the dependence of form on design is mediated by a set of cultural and historical facts. Their program of “The Social Utility of Art” as a result became a program for its destruction, the reduction of an aesthetic object to a material-physical basis, to pure form-creativity. The cognitive, ideological and aesthetic side of art, its national specifics and imagery in general disappeared, which led to pointlessness in art.

At the same time, attempts to identify the laws governing the form of the material and analysis of its combinatorial features (V. Tatlin, K. Malevich) contributed to the development of new approaches to the material and technological side of creativity.

COMPOSITION(lat. compositio arrangement, composition, addition) - a method of constructing a work of art, the principle of connecting similar and heterogeneous components and parts, consistent with each other and with the whole. The composition is determined by the methods of shaping and the peculiarities of perception characteristic of a certain type and genre of art, the laws of construction artistic sample(see) in canonized types of culture (for example, folklore, ancient Egyptian art, oriental, Western European Middle Ages etc.), as well as the individual originality of the artist, the unique content of the work of art in non-canonized types of culture ( european art New and Contemporary times, baroque, romanticism, realism, etc.).

The composition of the work finds its embodiment and is determined by the artistic development of the theme, the moral and aesthetic assessment of the author. It, according to S. Eisenstein, is the exposed nerve of the author's intention, thinking and ideology. Indirectly (in music) or more directly (in fine arts) composition correlates with the laws of the life process, with the objective and spiritual world reflected in work of art. It carries out a transition artistic content and its internal relations into the relation of form, and the orderliness of the form into the orderliness of the content. To distinguish the laws of construction of these spheres of art, two terms are sometimes used: architectonics (the relationship of the components of content) and composition (the principles of constructing form). There is another type of differentiation: the general form of the structure and the relationship of large parts of the work is called architectonics (for example, stanza in a poetic text), and the relationship of more detailed components is called composition (for example, the arrangement of poetic lines and the speech material itself). It should be taken into account that in the theory of architecture and organization subject environment another pair of related concepts is used: design (the unity of the material components of the form, achieved by identifying their functions) and composition (artistic completion and emphasis on constructive and functional aspirations, taking into account the characteristics of visual perception and artistic expression, decorativeness and integrity of form).

The concept of composition should be distinguished from that which became widespread in the 60s and 70s. the concept of the structure of a work of art as a stable, repeating principle, a compositional norm of a certain type, kind, genre, style and movement in art. In contrast to structure, composition is the unity, fusion and struggle of normative-typological and individually unique tendencies in the construction of a work of art. The degree of normativity and individual originality, the uniqueness of the composition is different in different types of art (cf. European classicism and “uninhibited” romanticism), in certain genres of the same type of art (compositional normativity in tragedy is expressed more clearly than in drama, and in a sonnet immeasurably higher than in a lyrical message). Compositional means are specific in certain types and genres of art, but at the same time, their mutual influence is undoubtedly: the theater has mastered the pyramidal and diagonal composition plastic arts, and subject-thematic painting is the behind-the-scenes construction of a scene. Various types arts, directly and indirectly, consciously and unconsciously, have absorbed the compositional principles of musical structures (for example, sonata form) and plastic relationships (see).

In the art of the 20th century. complication occurs compositional structures due to the increased inclusion of associative links, memories, dreams, through time changes and spatial shifts. The composition also becomes more complex in the process of convergence of traditional and “technical” arts. Extreme forms of modernism absolutize this tendency and give it an irrational and absurd meaning (“ new novel", theaters of the absurd, surrealism, etc.).

In general, composition in art expresses an artistic idea and organizes aesthetic perception in such a way that it moves from one component of the work to another, from part to whole.

INTUITION artistic (from Latin intuitio - contemplation) - the most important element of creative thinking, affecting such aspects of artistic

activity and artistic consciousness, such as creativity, perception, truth. In the most general form, when intuition is recognized as equally important in both art and science, it is nothing more than a special insight into truth, which dispenses with reliance on rational forms of knowledge associated with one or another type of logical proof.

The most important thing is artistic intuition in creativity. This is especially evident at the initial stage creative process, so-called " problematic situation" The fact that the result of creativity must be original forces creative personality already at a very early stage of creativity, look for a solution that has not been encountered before. It involves a radical revision of established concepts, mental patterns, ideas about man, space and time. Intuitive knowledge, as new knowledge, usually exists in the form of an unexpected guess, a symbolic diagram, in which the contours of a future work are only guessed. However, as many artists admit, this kind of insight forms the basis of the entire creative process.

Aesthetic and especially artistic perception also include elements of artistic intuition. Not just creation artistic image creator of art, but the perception of artistic imagery by the reader, viewer, listener is associated with a certain mood for perception artistic value, which is hidden from superficial observation. In this case, artistic intuition becomes the means by which the perceiver penetrates into the area of ​​artistic significance. In addition, artistic intuition ensures the act of co-creation of the perceiving work of art and its creator.

Until now, much in the operation of the intuitive mechanism seems mysterious and causes great difficulties in its study. Sometimes, on this basis, artistic intuition is attributed to the realm of mysticism and identified with one of the forms of irrationalism in aesthetics. However, the experience of many brilliant artists indicates that thanks to artistic intuition it is possible to create works that deeply and truthfully reflect reality. If the artist does not deviate from the principles of realism in his work, then artistic intuition, which he actively uses, can be considered as a special effective remedy knowledge that does not contradict the criteria of truth and objectivity.

INTRIGUE(from Latin intricare - to confuse) - an artistic technique used to build a plot and plot in various genres fiction, cinema, theatrical arts(confusing and unexpected turns of action, interweaving and clashes of interests of the characters depicted). The idea of ​​the importance of introducing intrigue into the unfolding of the action depicted in dramatic work, was first expressed by Aristotle: “The most important thing with which tragedy captivates the soul is the essence of the plot - twists and turns and recognition.

Intrigue gives the unfolding action a tense and exciting character. With its help, the transfer of complex and conflicting (see) relationships between people in their private and social lives is achieved. The technique of intrigue is usually widely used in works of the adventure genre. However, this is also used by classical writers in other genres, as is clear from creative heritage great realist writers - Pushkin, Lermontov, Dostoevsky, L. Tolstoy and others. Often intrigue is only a means of external entertainment. This is typical for bourgeois, purely commercial art, designed for bad philistine taste. The opposite tendency of bourgeois art is the desire for plotlessness, when intrigue disappears as an artistic device.

ANTITHESIS(Greek antithesis - opposition) - a stylistic figure of contrast, a way of organizing both artistic and non-artistic artistic speech, which is based on the use of words with opposite meanings (antonyms).
Antithesis as a figure of opposition in the system of rhetorical figures has been known since antiquity. Thus, for Aristotle, antithesis is a certain “way of presenting” thought, a means of creating a special - “opposite” - period.

In artistic speech, antithesis has special properties: it becomes an element artistic system, serves as a means of creating an artistic image. Therefore, antithesis is called the opposite of not only words, but also images of a work of art.

As a figure of opposition, antithesis can be expressed by both absolute and contextual antonyms.

And the bright house is alarming
I was left alone with the darkness,
The impossible was possible
But the possible was a dream.
(A. Blok)

ALLEGORY(Greek allegoria - allegory) one of the allegorical artistic techniques, the meaning of which is that an abstract thought or phenomenon of reality appears in a work of art in the form of a concrete image.

By its nature, an allegory is two-part.

On the one hand, this is a concept or phenomenon (cunning, wisdom, good, nature, summer, etc.), on the other, a concrete object, a picture of life, illustrating an abstract thought, making it visual. However, in itself, this picture of life plays only a service role - it illustrates, decorates the idea, and therefore is devoid of “any definite individuality” (Hegel), as a result of which the idea can be expressed by a whole series of “picture illustrations” (A.F. Losev).

However, the connection between the two plans of the allegory is not arbitrary, it is based on the fact that the general exists and manifests itself only in a specific individual object, the properties and functions of which serve as the means of creating the allegory. One can cite as an example the allegories “Fertility” by V. Mukhina or “Dove” by Picasso - an allegory of the world.

Sometimes an idea exists not only as an allegorical plan of an allegory, but is expressed directly (for example, in the form of a fable “moral”). In this form, allegory is especially characteristic of works of art that pursue moral and didactic goals.

Everyone knows well that art is the self-expression of an individual, and literature, therefore, is the self-expression of the writer’s personality. "Baggage" writing person consists of vocabulary, speech techniques, and skills in using these techniques. The richer the artist’s palette, the greater the possibilities he has when creating a canvas. It’s the same with a writer: the more expressive his speech, the brighter images, the deeper and more interesting the statements, the stronger the emotional impact his works can have on the reader.

Among the means of speech expressiveness, more often called “artistic devices” (or otherwise figures, tropes) in literary creativity In first place in terms of frequency of use is metaphor.

Metaphor is used when we use a word or expression in a figurative sense. This transfer is carried out by the similarity of individual features of a phenomenon or object. Most often, it is metaphor that creates an artistic image.

There are quite a few varieties of metaphor, among them:

metonymy - a trope that mixes meanings by contiguity, sometimes suggesting the imposition of one meaning on another

(examples: “Let me eat another plate!”; “Van Gogh is hanging on the third floor”);

(examples: “nice guy”; “pathetic little man”; “bitter bread”);

comparison is a figure of speech that characterizes an object by comparing one thing with another

(examples: “like the flesh of a child is fresh, like the call of a pipe is tender”);

personification - “revival” of objects or phenomena of inanimate nature

(examples: “ominous darkness”; “autumn cried”; “blizzard howled”);

hyperbole and litotes - a figure in the meaning of exaggeration or understatement of the described object

(examples: “he always argues”; “a sea of ​​tears”; “there wasn’t a drop of poppy dew in his mouth”);

sarcasm is an evil, caustic mockery, sometimes outright verbal mockery (for example, in popular lately rap battles);

irony - a mocking statement when the speaker means something completely different (for example, the works of I. Ilf and E. Petrov);

humor is a trope that expresses a cheerful and most often good-natured mood (for example, the fables of I.A. Krylov are written in this vein);

grotesque is a figure of speech that deliberately violates the proportions and true dimensions of objects and phenomena (often used in fairy tales, another example is “Gulliver’s Travels” by J. Swift, the work of N.V. Gogol);

pun - deliberate ambiguity, a play on words based on their polysemy

(examples can be found in jokes, as well as in the works of V. Mayakovsky, O. Khayyam, K. Prutkov, etc.);

oxymoron - a combination in one expression of the incongruous, two contradictory concepts

(examples: “terribly handsome”, “original copy”, “pack of comrades”).

However, verbal expressiveness is not limited to stylistic figures. In particular, we can also mention sound painting, which is an artistic technique that implies a certain order in the construction of sounds, syllables, words to create some kind of image or mood, imitation of sounds real world. The reader will often encounter sound writing in poetic works, but this technique is also found in prose.

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TROPE

Trope is a word or expression used figuratively to create artistic image and achieving greater expressiveness. Paths include techniques such as epithet, comparison, personification, metaphor, metonymy, sometimes they include hyperboles and litotes. No work of art is complete without tropes. Artistic word- ambiguous; the writer creates images by playing with meanings and combinations of words, using the environment of the word in the text and its sound - all this makes up artistic possibilities words, which are the only tool of the writer or poet.
Pay attention! When creating a trope, the word is always used in a figurative sense.

Let's consider different types tropes:

EPITHET(Greek Epitheton, attached) is one of the tropes, which is an artistic, figurative definition. An epithet can be:
adjectives: gentle face (S. Yesenin); these poor villages, this meager nature...(F. Tyutchev); transparent maiden (A. Blok);
participles: edge abandoned(S. Yesenin); frenzied dragon (A. Blok); takeoff illuminated(M. Tsvetaeva);
nouns, sometimes together with their surrounding context: Here he is leader without squads(M. Tsvetaeva); My youth! My little dove is dark!(M. Tsvetaeva).

Every epithet reflects the uniqueness of the author’s perception of the world, therefore it necessarily expresses some kind of assessment and has a subjective meaning: a wooden shelf is not an epithet, so there is no artistic definition, wooden face - an epithet expressing the speaker’s impression of the interlocutor’s facial expression, that is, creating an image.
There are stable (permanent) folklore epithets: remote, portly, kind Well done, It's clear sun, as well as tautological, that is, repetition epithets, the same root with the defined word: Eh, bitter grief, boring boredom, mortal! (A. Blok).

In a work of art an epithet can perform various functions:

• describe the subject figuratively: shining eyes, eyes- diamonds;
• create an atmosphere, mood: gloomy morning;
• convey the attitude of the author (storyteller, lyrical hero) to the subject being characterized: “Where will our prankster?" (A. Pushkin);
• combine all previous functions in equal shares (in most cases of using the epithet).

Pay attention! All color terms V literary text are epithets.

COMPARISON is an artistic technique (trope) in which an image is created by comparing one object with another. Comparison differs from other artistic comparisons, for example, likenings, in that it always has a strict formal sign: a comparative construction or a turnover with comparative conjunctions as if, as if, exactly, as if and the like. Expressions like he looked like... cannot be considered a comparison as a trope.

Examples of comparisons:

Comparison also plays certain roles in the text: sometimes authors use the so-called detailed comparison, revealing various signs of a phenomenon or conveying one’s attitude towards several phenomena. Often a work is entirely based on comparison, such as, for example, V. Bryusov’s poem “Sonnet to Form”:

PERSONALIZATION- an artistic technique (trope) in which inanimate object, a phenomenon or concept is given human properties (do not confuse, exactly human!). Personification can be used narrowly, in one line, in a small fragment, but it can be a technique on which the entire work is built (“You are my abandoned land” by S. Yesenin, “Mom and the evening killed by the Germans,” “The violin and a little nervously” by V. Mayakovsky, etc.). Personification is considered one of the types of metaphor (see below).

Impersonation task- to correlate the depicted object with a person, to make it closer to the reader, to figuratively comprehend the inner essence of the object, hidden from everyday life. Personification is one of the oldest figurative means of art.

HYPERBOLA(Greek: Hyperbole, exaggeration) is a technique in which an image is created through artistic exaggeration. Hyperbole is not always included in the set of tropes, but by the nature of the use of the word in a figurative meaning to create an image, hyperbole is very close to tropes. A technique opposite in content to hyperbole is LITOTES(Greek Litotes, simplicity) is an artistic understatement.

Hyperbole allows the author to show the reader in an exaggerated form the most characteristic features depicted object. Often hyperbole and litotes are used by the author in an ironic way, revealing not just characteristic, but negative, from the author’s point of view, aspects of the subject.

METAPHOR(Greek Metaphora, transfer) - a type of so-called complex trope, a speech turn in which the properties of one phenomenon (object, concept) are transferred to another. A metaphor contains a hidden comparison, a figurative likening of phenomena using the figurative meaning of words; what the object is compared with is only implied by the author. No wonder Aristotle said that “to compose good metaphors means to notice similarities.”

Examples of metaphor:

METONYMY(Greek Metonomadzo, rename) - type of trope: figurative designation of an object according to one of its characteristics.

Examples of metonymy:

When studying the topic “Means of Artistic Expression” and completing assignments, pay special attention to the definitions of the concepts given. You must not only understand their meaning, but also know the terminology by heart. This will protect you from practical mistakes: knowing firmly that the technique of comparison has strict formal characteristics (see theory on topic 1), you will not confuse this technique with a number of other artistic techniques, which are also based on the comparison of several objects, but are not a comparison .

Please note that you must begin your answer either with the suggested words (by rewriting them) or with your own version of the beginning of the complete answer. This applies to all such tasks.

• Literary criticism: Reference materials. - M., 1988.
• Polyakov M. Rhetoric and literature. Theoretical aspects. - In the book: Questions of poetics and artistic semantics. - M.: Sov. writer, 1978.
• Dictionary literary terms. - M., 1974.