By Hellenic civilization we mean the civilization that developed within Greece, or Hellas, if we follow the ancient self-name of this country. Various peoples of the Indo-European and non-Indo-European language families took part in its formation, although the dominant role was played by the Hellenes, the ancestors of modern Greeks. Spatially, Hellenic civilization tended towards a very extensive expansion: in the west it reached the Pillars of Hercules in the Bay of Gibraltar, in the east - up to Persia inclusive, in the north - to Macedonia, Thrace, Moesia and the northern coast of the Pontus Euxine, that is, the Black Sea, in the south - before Egypt, although Hellas always remained the cultural core.
Hellas occupied an extremely unique position: mainland (Achaea), peninsular (Peloponnese) and island (Aeolia), which predetermined the special role of the sea in the life of its population and involvement in both the West and the East. The most significant regions of Hellas: Macedonia - the northern region of Greece, Thrace - the northeastern region, Epirus - the northwestern region, washed by the Ionian Sea from the southwest; Thessaly is the most flat region, washed from the east by the Aegean Sea; Central Greece; Attica - the area around Athens; The Peloponnese is the largest peninsula of Greece, connected to the mainland by the narrow Isthmus of Corinth.
Greek Gods, Angus McBride
Hellenic civilization went through a long path of development, and the following periods can be roughly distinguished:
- Early Helladic XXX - XXII centuries BC;
- Middle Helladic XXI - XVII centuries BC;
- Late Helladic XVI – XII centuries BC;
- Homeric XI – IX centuries BC;
- archaic VIII – VI centuries BC;
- classical V – IV centuries BC;
- Hellenistic III – I centuries BC.
Climate in Ancient Greece varied from temperate continental on the mainland to subtropical on the islands. Precipitation occurred in the autumn-winter season from September to February, which therefore turned out to be the only favorable one for agriculture. The spring-summer season, on the contrary, was characterized by extreme aridity, which led to the drying up of rivers. Mountain rivers predominate, short, stormy, with picturesque rapids and waterfalls, often flowing to the sea in narrow canyons. The longest river in Greece is Aljakmon (almost 300 km).
Other large rivers in the Hellenic lands are the Ebros, Nestos, Strymon, Vardar, Aheloos. Lakes: Prespa, Trichonis. The climate in Greece is Mediterranean with dry, hot summers and cool, rainy winters. In ancient times, both mainland and island Greece were covered with dense forests, but excessive grazing by goats led to their disappearance and replacement by shrubs (maquis, shiblyak) or olive groves and vineyards.
The landscape of Hellas is predominantly mountainous, interspersed with alpine meadows and valleys; this created favorable conditions for shepherding, but extremely limited the possibilities of agriculture: it was possible to cultivate grapevines and olives, but it was almost impossible to grow grain, which was the basis of ancient eastern civilizations. In the mountains of Hellas there were mines of precious, ferrous and non-ferrous metals, deposits of the best and very diverse types of marble and other building stones. Deposits of high-quality clays were found in the valleys. The sea was quite rich in valuable fish and other seafood.
Clay and alabaster head of a Zoroastrian priest wearing a distinctive Bactrian style headdress, Takhti-Sangin, Tajikistan, 3rd-2nd centuries. BC e.
Hellenism- a period in the history of the Mediterranean, primarily the East, lasting from the time of the death of Alexander the Great (323 BC) until the final establishment of Roman rule in these territories, which is usually dated by the fall of Hellenistic Egypt, led by the Ptolemies (30 BC . e.) . The term originally denoted the correct use of the Greek language, especially by non-Greeks, but after the publication of Johann Gustav Droysen's "History of Hellenism" ( - gg.), the concept entered historical science.
The beginning of the Hellenistic era is characterized by a transition from polis political organization to hereditary Hellenistic monarchies, a shift in the centers of cultural and economic activity from Greece to Africa and Egypt.
Chronology
The Hellenistic era spans three centuries. However, as noted, there is no consensus on the issue of periodization. So, according to some, the record of its beginning can be traced back to 334, that is, from the year the campaign of Alexander the Great began.
It is proposed to distinguish three periods:
The term pre-Hellenism is also sometimes used.
Hellenistic states
The conquests of Alexander the Great spread Greek culture to the East, but did not lead to the formation of a world empire. On the territory of the conquered Persian Empire, Hellenistic states were formed, led by the diadochi and their descendants:
- The Seleucid state was centered first in Babylon and then in Antioch.
- The Greco-Bactrian kingdom separated from the Seleucid state in the 3rd century. BC e., the center of which was located in the territory of modern Afghanistan.
- The Indo-Greek kingdom separated from the Greco-Bactrian kingdom in the 2nd century. BC e., the center of which was located on the territory of modern Pakistan.
- The Pontic kingdom was formed on the territory of modern northern Turkey.
- The Kingdom of Pergamon also existed in what is now western Turkey.
- The Commagene kingdom separated from the Seleucid state and was located on the territory of modern eastern Turkey.
- Hellenistic Egypt was formed on the territory of Egypt, led by the Ptolemies.
- The Achaean League existed on the territory of modern Greece.
- The Bosporan kingdom existed on the territory of the eastern Crimea and the eastern coast Sea of Azov, at one time was part of the Pontic Kingdom.
The new states are organized according to a special principle, called the Hellenistic monarchy, based on the synthesis of local despotic and Greek polis political traditions. The polis, as an independent civil community, retained its independence as a social and political entity even within the framework of the Hellenistic monarchy. Cities such as Alexandria enjoy autonomy and their citizens enjoy special rights and privileges. The Hellenistic state is usually headed by a king, who has full state power. Its main support was the bureaucratic apparatus, which carried out the functions of managing the entire territory of the state, with the exception of cities that had the status of policies, which had a certain autonomy.
Compared to previous periods, the situation in the Greek world has changed significantly: instead of many poleis warring with each other, the Greek world now consisted of several relatively stable major powers. These states represented a common cultural and economic space, which is important for understanding the cultural and political aspect of that era. The Greek world was a very closely interconnected system, which is confirmed at least by the presence of a single financial system, as well as by the scale of migration flows within the Hellenistic world (the Hellenistic era was a time of relatively high mobility of the Greek population, in particular continental Greece, at the end of the 4th century BC). e. suffered from overpopulation, already by the end of the 3rd century BC.
Culture of Hellenistic society
Hellenistic society differs strikingly from classical Greek society in a number of ways. The actual withdrawal of the polis system into the background, the development and spread of political and economic vertical (rather than horizontal) connections, the collapse of outdated social institutions, and a general change in the cultural background caused serious changes in Greek social structure. It was a mixture of Greek and oriental elements. Syncretism manifested itself most clearly in religion and the official practice of deifying monarchs.
The departure is noted in the 3rd-2nd centuries BC. e. from the sublimely beautiful images of the Greek classics towards the individual and lyrical. During the Hellenistic era there was a plurality artistic directions, some of which turned out to be associated with the affirmation of inner peace, others with “severe love for rock.”
Hellenization of the East
Historiography
The tradition of focusing the attention of researchers on the classical period of antiquity was finally interrupted by the prominent German classical philologist Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Möllendorff, expanding the area of material studied by classical studies to include the Hellenistic era.
This article is about the culture of the Hellenistic era, historical aspects are presented in the article Hellenistic period.
Hellenistic civilization - a term that has two semantic meanings: chronological - the culture of the Hellenistic era and typological - the culture that arose as a result of the interaction of Greek (Hellenic) and local elements. Typological understanding leads to the expansion of the chronological and geographical framework up to the inclusion of the entire culture in the concept of “Hellenistic civilization” ancient world from the time of the campaigns of Alexander the Great (4th century BC) to the fall of the Roman Empire (5th century AD). This does not take into account the qualitative changes in ideology and culture that arose after the Roman conquest.
The culture that developed throughout the Hellenistic world was not uniform. In each region it was formed through the interaction of local, most sustainable traditional elements culture with the culture brought by conquerors and settlers - Greeks and non-Greeks. The forms of synthesis were determined by the influence of many specific circumstances: the numerical ratio of various ethnic groups (local and future), the degree of their economy and culture, social organization, political situation, etc.
Even when comparing large Hellenistic cities (Alexandria, Antioch on the Orontes, Pergamum, etc.), where the Greek-Macedonian population played a leading role, special features of cultural life characteristic of each city are clearly visible. They appear even more clearly in the internal regions of the Hellenistic states (for example, Thebaid Babylon, Thrace). However, all local variants of Hellenistic culture have some common features, conditioned, on the one hand, by similar trends in the socio-economic and political development of society throughout the Hellenistic world, on the other - mandatory participation in the synthesis of elements of Greek culture.
The formation of Hellenistic monarchies, combined with the polis structure of cities, contributed to the emergence of new relations in society. The tense political situation, continuous military conflicts between states and social movements within them also left a significant imprint on Hellenistic culture. It is in the culture of the Hellenistic era that differences in the content and nature of the culture of the Hellenized upper strata of society and the urban and rural poor, in whose environment the local traditions.
1. Religion and mythology
Prgam Altar, Athena in a duel with the sons of the earth goddess Gaia, remains of a high relief, Berlin.
The most characteristic feature of Hellenistic religion and mythology is syncretism, in which Eastern heritage played a huge role. The gods of the Greek pantheon were identified with ancient eastern deities and endowed with new features. The forms of veneration of deities changed, the mysteries acquired a more orgiastic character. While local differences in the pantheon and forms of cult were preserved, some universal deities gradually became more widespread, combining similar functions of the most revered deities of different peoples.
One of the main cults was the cult of Zeus Hypsistos (Highest above all) he was identified with the Phoenician god Baal, the Egyptian Amon, the Babylonian mythical Bel, and the Jewish Yahweh. His numerous epithets - Pantocrator (Almighty), Soter (Savior), Helios (Sun) and others - speak of the extraordinary expansion of his functions. The cult of Dionysus competed in popularity with the cult of Zeus with mysteries that brought it closer to the cults of the Egyptian god Osiris, the Asia Minor gods Sabazius and Adonis.
Among female deities, the main and almost universally revered deity was the Egyptian Isis, who embodied the features of many Greek and Asian goddesses. A specific product of the Hellenistic era was the cult of Serapis, a deity that owes its appearance to the religious policy of the Ptolemies, who sought to merge the anthropomorphic appearance of Zeus-Poseidon, familiar to the Greeks, with the functions of the Egyptian zoomorphic deities Osiris and Apis. Syncretic cults that developed in the East penetrated into the policies of Asia Minor, Greece and Macedonia, and then into the Western Mediterranean. Some Eastern cults were perceived by the Greeks almost unchanged. The importance of the goddess of fate Tyche grew to the level of the main deities.
2. Philosophy
During the Hellenistic era, the Platonic Academy, the Aristotelian Lyceum, the Cynics and the Kirensk School continued to operate. At the same time, three new philosophical schools emerged: skepticism, Epicureanism and Stoicism. They were united by a common focus on issues of individual behavior, his achievement of internal independence from the world around him, and the associated displacement of ontological issues.
A school of skeptics founded at the end of the 4th century BC. e. Pyrrho, called for achieving equanimity of spirit on the path of abandoning the search for what is, in their opinion, impossible, objective knowledge, abstaining from judgment and following reasonable probability, traditions and customs. Subsequently, skepticism merges with the Platonic Academy (these are the so-called second and third academies, founded by Arcesilaus and Carneades). In the 1st century BC. e. skepticism develops Aenesidemus.
The history of individual states continued to be developed, the chronicles and decrees of Greek city-states were studied, and interest in the history of eastern countries increased. Already at the beginning of the 3rd century, works appeared in Greek by local priest-scientists: Manetho (history of Pharaonic Egypt), Berossus (history of Babylon), Apollodorus of Athens (history of the Parthians) historical works in local languages (for example, the Book of Maccabees about the revolt of the inhabitants of Judea against the Seleucids).
Literature
Moira in the fight against the giants, the sons of Gaia. Pergamon Tuesday.
The most important feature fiction the Hellenistic era was a narrowing of its social horizon compared to the previous (so-called polis) period Greek history. Only the theater retained its public character, but even in the theater, the socio-political and accusatory comedy of Aristophanes was replaced by the so-called new Attic comedy (Menander, Philemon, Diphila - first half of the 4th - early 3rd century BC) with its interest to private life and family vicissitudes. Tragedies from the Hellenistic period have not survived, although productions are attested throughout the Hellenistic period both in Athens and throughout almost the entire Hellenistic world (as far as Armenia and the Black Sea region).
From the beginning of the 3rd century BC. e. literature developed in new cultural centers, mainly in Alexandria, where artistic creativity was inextricably linked with the research of philologists who worked in the famous Library of Alexandria. The study of the fiction of the past made Hellenistic poets realize both the stability of existing literary traditions and the need for their renewal. Hence the intensive experimentation in the field of genres. Elegy from a means of social and moral edification turns into a narrative with mythological content in the works of Philetus from the island of Kos (about 320-270), Hermesianacts from Colophon (about 300) and Callimachus from Cyrene. At the same time, Callimachus replaced the traditional heroic epic with the genre of the short poem ("epillia"), teaches in everyday tones side episodes of the heroic legend. In the so-called idyll of Theocritus, the everyday situation was often developed in forms borrowed from a folk singing competition or characteristic of a dramatic scene from the life of an urban family. This same circle forms the content of Herodes' "mimiamba", discovered on papyrus at the end of the 19th century. The Hellenistic period was also the heyday of the epigram, in which love themes came first: the emergence of passion, the meeting of lovers, non-reciprocal feelings.
The traditional genre of the heroic epic continued in Apollonius of Rhodes, but it was also influenced by the scholarship that was mandatory for the poetry of Hellenistic culture and required the authors to weave antique references, rare words and myths into the main plot. Of significant importance for the further development of ancient and medieval literature were prose genres, which took shape during the Hellenistic period with the involvement of folklore short stories, stories: a love story involving legendary kings and generals (“The Romance of Nina?”), pseudo-historical descriptions of the ideal social order (Iambul, Eugemer). Hellenistic literature achieved significant success in depicting inner world person, his daily life, while the use folklore tradition expanded the boundaries of literary genres.
6. Architecture and fine arts
Cameo Gonzaga, now the Hermitage, St. Petersburg.
The beginning of the Hellenistic civilization was marked by the Eastern campaign of Alexander the Great and the massive colonization flow of the inhabitants of Ancient Hellas and the newly conquered lands. As a result, in the Mediterranean, Western Asia and the areas adjacent to them, a new material and spiritual culture, forms of political organization and social relations of peoples gradually emerged. The influence of the Hellenistic civilization spread unusually widely - to the West and Eastern Europe, Western and Central Asia, North Africa. New forms of social life were a kind of synthesis of local, mainly eastern, and Greek elements, which played a greater or lesser role depending on specific historical conditions. Most characteristic features economic development in this vast region there was an increase in trade and the production of labor products intended for exchange. Despite frequent military clashes, regular maritime connections were established, trade routes were established, and new large craft centers emerged, the production of which was largely intended for the market. With the development of trade, monetary circulation expanded significantly, which was facilitated by the unification of coinage, which began under Alexander the Great, during which the production of gold coins became widespread. The Hellenes who came to the eastern regions found there an unfamiliar but objectively necessary form of power - despotism. The need of the ancient Eastern states for the unlimited power of the despot was dictated by his most important function - the organizer of public works, primarily related to irrigation. Therefore, at the end of IV-- beginning of III V. BC e. On the newly conquered lands, a specific form of socio-political organization arose - the Hellenistic monarchy, which combined elements of eastern despotism - a monarchical form of power with a standing army and central administration and elements of the political system. The latter were represented by cities with localities assigned to Nimsel, which retained internal government bodies, but were largely subordinate to the king. The size of the lands assigned to the policy depended on the monarch. In most cases, tsarist officials controlled the activities of city government bodies. The loss of foreign policy independence by the policies was compensated by the security of their existence, greater social stability and the provision of strong economic ties with other parts of the state. The tsarist power acquired important support among the urban population and received the necessary sources of replenishment of the army and bureaucrats. Property relations also changed in the Hellenistic state. Within the territory of the polis, land relations remained the same, but if the land was assigned to cities by the local villages located on it, then its population did not become citizens of the polis. Continuing to own its plots, it paid taxes to the city or to private individuals who received these lands from their father. In the territory not assigned to cities, all land was considered royal. There was a combination of despotic and ancient forms of ownership. Along with classical slavery, its more primitive forms were also preserved - debt slavery, self-sale, etc. The role of slave labor in Hellenistic cities was no less than in Greek city-states, but in agriculture the labor of slaves could not displace the labor of the local free population. The culture of the Hellenistic civilization is a combination of local sustainable traditions with the culture brought by conquerors and settlers - Greeks and non-Greeks. However, it was a holistic culture: with all the local differences, it was characterized by some common features due to the influence of Greek culture, as well as similar trends in socio-economic and political development. Hellenism had an enduring significance in the history of mankind, enriching it with new discoveries in the field of scientific knowledge and invention. It is enough to name the names of Euclid and Archimedes. Within the framework of philosophy, social utopias were born and developed, describing the ideal social order, free from vices and conflicts. The treasury of world art has been replenished with such masterpieces as the altar of Zeus in Pergamon, the statues of Venus de Milo and the Nike of Samothrace, and the Laocoon sculptural group. A new type of public building appeared: a library, a museum that served scientific center. These and other cultural achievements were inherited by the Byzantine Empire and the Arabs, and entered the golden fund of universal human culture.
Lecture 15. History of the Hellenistic states
Lecture questions:
1. Features of the Hellenistic world.
2. Hellenistic powers of the Eastern Mediterranean.
3. The periphery of the Hellenistic world.
Hellenism is a period in the history of the Mediterranean, primarily the East, which lasted from the time of the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC. e. until the final establishment of Roman rule in these territories. The latter is usually dated to 30 BC. e. - Rome's subjugation of Egypt.
I. Features of the Hellenistic world.
1. Hellenistic era - the time of greatest territorial spread of ancient civilization. The boundaries have expanded Ecumenes- known to the Greeks and the world they mastered. The interaction between individual countries and peoples has become incomparably closer and more fruitful than before. A number of new trade routes, both sea and land, were developed. In particular, a route was laid from Hellenistic Egypt to India, passing through the Red and Arabian Seas. From the Hindustan Peninsula, luxury goods - incense and precious stones - came primarily to the Mediterranean.
In the 2nd century BC. e. the Hellenistic states learned about the existence of China. At that time, the Han dynasty was in power in the Middle Empire, during whose reign the territory of China reached its greatest size. Some of them came under the influence of the Chinese rulers Central Asia. It was here that the first contacts of the Chinese with representatives of the Hellenistic states took place. The main product for which China was famous from that time on for many centuries was silk. It is no coincidence that the trade route to the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, blazed during the Hellenistic era, is known as the Great Silk Road.
2. During the Hellenistic era it happened unification of two civilizational spaces– ancient Greek and Ancient East. Previously, these two “worlds” developed separately and even opposed each other. Now they have entered into a single system of states. Undoubtedly, the unification took place by force, as a result of the military campaigns of Alexander the Great. But this in no way means that the unification processes did not have internal, objective prerequisites.
On the one hand, Greek society of the era late classic outgrew the narrow framework of the ancient polis and gravitated towards a broader unification. On the other hand, in the East, which by this time was already largely united under the rule of the Achaemenids, enormous material resources had been accumulated. But they remained unclaimed due to the insufficient degree of economic development and the low level of economic ties between individual regions.
3. The emergence of a “mixed” - ancient-eastern economy. On the eve of the emergence of Hellenistic civilization, there were two phenomena - the “active poverty” of the Greeks and the “passive wealth” of the East. D Ancient Eastern societies were characterized by the predominance of natural agriculture of the traditional type with an extremely insignificant role of crafts and trade. In the Greek world, on the contrary, already from the archaic era, the rapid development of handicraft production and trade began. In the Hellenistic states these two spheres of economic management were combined. The result was a “mixed” economy. Agriculture remained the basis of economic activity, but a dynamic trade and craft superstructure appeared above it.
4. The combination of the monarchy with the polis organization in political life. In the East, monarchy prevailed everywhere, sometimes characterized by the deification of the king and his very significant power, reaching absolute power - oriental despotism. In relation to the monarch, all residents of the state, without exception, were in the position of subjects, completely subordinate to the will of the ruler. A major role was played by the bureaucratic apparatus, on which the kings relied when managing the lands under their control.
Greek world was characterized by a polis form of statehood with a republican structure. A citizen of the polis had political and personal freedom, obeyed only the law and took part in governing the state. Bureaucracy practically did not exist, since all officials were elected.
In the Hellenistic era, the polis and monarchical principles of government came into interaction. Hellenistic states developed as monarchies, with enormous, sometimes absolute powers of the king. At the same time, policies of the ancient type were founded under them, which were populated by immigrants from Hellas. Polis status was sometimes given to some of the old eastern cities.
Hellenistic city-states were still constituted as civil communities with corresponding elected governing bodies. But unlike the poleis of previous centuries, they were not independent states. They had a supreme sovereign - the king. They did not resolve foreign policy issues, and citizens were entrusted only with internal self-government.
5. Active development of urban planning. Around 170 cities were founded by various Greco-Macedonian rulers, starting with Alexander the Great. Many of them remained small and provincial. But some of the new cities became major economic, political and cultural centers.
Some ancient Greek cities flourished, especially those located in Asia Minor - Miletus, Ephesus and others. At the same time, a number of large cities of Balkan Greece, such as Athens, Sparta, Thebes, began to decline.
6. Hellenization- the process of introducing the local population to the Greek way of life, Greek civilizational values. Its depth and scale varied in different regions of the Hellenistic world. The most intense Hellenization was observed in the regions of the Eastern Mediterranean - in Asia Minor, Syria and Phenicia, and partly in Egypt.
But here, too, the process affected, as a rule, cities - the main habitats of the Greeks. The rural population, which constituted the majority everywhere, preferred to adhere to pre-Greek traditions. As for distant regions - Mesopotamia, Iran, Central Asia, then, with rare exceptions, the further away from the Mediterranean Sea the Greek influence was felt less and less. In addition, Hellenization affected mainly the upper strata of Eastern society.
At the same time, there were regions into which the influence of the East hardly penetrated. First of all, these are territories located on the Balkan Peninsula (Macedonia, Greece proper) and to the west of it (Magna Graecia).
7. High population mobility. This is especially true for the Greeks. Having decided to move to the East, they often began to constantly move from one country to another. Warriors, traders, cultural figures could find themselves as far from their homeland as desired. And everywhere they felt to a certain extent at home, finding themselves in an environment of similar cultural values.
Instead of many independent poleis warring with each other, the Hellenistic world consisted of several relatively stable major powers. They formed a single civilizational space, often differing only in their ruling dynasties. The elite of society consisted of Greeks and Macedonians. At the same time, eastern aristocrats who became familiar with the Greek way of life were also perceived as “Hellenes.”
Everywhere state language was Greek. Greek dominated financial system, based on the Athenian drachma. The Hellenistic rulers liked to place on their coins the image of Alexander, whose successor they considered themselves to be. The uniformity of coinage contributed to the development of interstate monetary circulation. A person, having received a salary for serving one Hellenistic king, could well spend this money in the domains of another monarch.
II. Hellenistic powers of the Eastern Mediterranean.
Seleucid State
Political history.
Seleucus I Nicator managed to unite most of the former Achaemenid state under his rule. During the period of greatest power, his possessions covered Syria, Phenicia and Palestine, part of Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, Iran, and southern Central Asia. Thus, the kingdom spread from the eastern coast of the Aegean Sea to the borders of India. The “core” of the state was Syria. Therefore, in sources it is sometimes called Syrian kingdom.
Son of Seleucus - Antiochus I Soter(281 - 261 BC), who defeated the Galatians, was able to maintain power within the boundaries inherited from his father. But his heir Antiochus II Theos(261 - 246 BC), turned out to be a weak ruler. With him it disappeared Bactria, located in the territory of modern Afghanistan.
Syrian governor of the province Diodotus declared himself king (mid 250s - 248 BC). To him and his son and successor Diodotus II(248 - 235 BC) managed to defend the independence of the state. The Greco-Bactrian kingdom reached its greatest power under Demetrius I(200 - 180 BC). He even managed to conquer a large part of Northern India.
As a result, a vast Greco-Bactrian Kingdom. In the second half of the 2nd century BC, weakened internal conflicts, it was invaded by the Indo-European people Tocharians(whale. Yuezhi). They managed to capture the territory of Bactria proper. The eastern part of the state survived until 10 AD. How Indo-Greek kingdom.
Tsar Menander I (Ind. Milinda), who ruled there from 150 to 135 BC. e., converted to Buddhism. His role in spreading the teachings of the Buddha is valued in Buddhist literature as highly as the role of King Ashoka. Plutarch says that after the death of Menander, the ashes from the funeral pyre were distributed among many cities in which monuments similar to the stupas of Buddha were built.
Simultaneously with Bactria, the region fell away Parthia, located on the territory of modern Iran. Local Seleucid governor Andragor in 250 BC e. proclaimed the independence of the satrapy. A few years later, his state was invaded by tribes of Scythian origin, the main of which were guys. Leader of the Parns Arshak became the founder of the Arsacid dynasty of Parthian kings. After his death, power over the former Seleucid province passed to his younger brother Tiridatou, who took the throne name Arshak II(247 - 211 BC). The Syrian kings, after an unsuccessful attempt to restore their own, were forced to recognize the Arsacid power over Parthia.
King of Parthia Mithridates I(c. 170-138/137 BC) took the eastern satrapies from the Seleucids - Persia, most of Mesopotamia and conquered part of the Greco-Bactrian state up to the Hindu Kush. He took the title king of kings, thus proclaiming himself the successor of the Achaemenids. At Mithridates II(c. 123-88/87 BC) the Parthians conquered vast areas in the east, and also took northern Mesopotamia from Syria.
The kings of Parthia actively intervened in the political struggle of the last Seleucids in Syria. They also managed to subjugate Armenia. Subsequently, the Parthian kingdom became a formidable enemy of Rome, the new hegemon of the Hellenistic world. In 227, the Arsacid dynasty fell under the blows of internal and external enemies. The title “king of kings” and power over Parthia passed to a new, Persian dynasty - Sassanids.
The defeats of the Syrian kingdom in the east are largely due to the difficult struggle that it waged with Egypt for hegemony in the Eastern Mediterranean. This struggle resulted in a series of six wars, which entered the history of Hellenism under the name Syrian. During First Syrian War(274-271 BC) the territories of Phenicia, most of Anatolia and the Cyclades islands went to Egypt. Results Second(c. 260 - c. 253 BC) and Third(246-241 BC) The Syrian wars were also disappointing for the Seleucids.
The situation was corrected Antiochus III the Great (223–187 BC). During Fourth And Fifth Syrian wars, he returned almost all the lost territories. Having completed in 212–205. BC e. military campaign to the east, he forced Parthia and Greco-Bactria to again recognize the power of the Seleucids. It was possible to recapture the lost areas from Egypt.
Concerned about the scale of the victories of Antiochus III, Rome intervened in the course of events in the East. A war broke out between the Syrian kingdom and the Roman Republic (192 - 188 BC). The fighting began with the landing of Syrian troops on the island of Euboea. The Aetolian and Boeotian unions, Elea and Messenia went over to the side of Antiochus. The Romans were supported by the Achaean League, Macedonia, Athens and Thessaly. Gradually the fighting moved to Asia Minor. In the battle of Magnesia in Lydia (189 BC) the Syrian army was defeated. After this, the decline of the Seleucid state began. Its kings had to give up their possessions in Asia Minor.
During Sixth Syrian War(170-168 BC) Antiochus IV Epiphanes (c. 215 - 164 BC) subjugated almost the entire territory of Egypt and besieged Alexandria. His fleet captured Cyprus. Rome again intervened in the war, demanding that Antiochus IV leave Egypt, threatening war if he refused. The Syrian king, after a short reflection, submitted and renounced all the conquered territories.
In 167 BC. An anti-Syrian uprising began in Judea, caused by cruel religious and national oppression. It was led by six brothers, the sons of a priest Mattathias. By the nickname of one of them - Judas Maccabee(from the Hebrew Maccabi - “Hammer”) the uprising went down in history under the name of the Maccabees. As a result of many years of war, the Jews restored their state, headed by kings from the dynasty Hasmonean(152 - 37 BC).
The weakening of the Seleucid state was aggravated by the bloody internecine struggle for the throne between members of the ruling dynasty. As a result, at the beginning of the 1st century BC. e. the power of this state extended only to Syria itself.
Hellenistic Egypt
Political history
During the 3rd century BC. The Ptolemies pursued an active foreign policy. They sought to expand their possessions in Asia Minor, interfere in the affairs of Balkan Greece, and bring the islands of the Aegean Sea under their control. In the middle of the century, the Ptolemaic possessions included, in addition to Egypt itself with adjacent territories (Cyrenaica in North Africa, part of Ethiopia), also Palestine, Phenicia, Southern Syria, Cyprus, and part of the coastal regions of Asia Minor. Many islands of the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea straits were under their control. Thus, the Ptolemies managed to establish themselves in the strategically and economically key regions of the Eastern Mediterranean.
The struggle between the Ptolemies and the Seleucids for the possession of southern Syria, through which important trade and strategic routes passed, was especially fierce. The greatest military successes were achieved by Ptolemy III during the Third Syrian War (246 - 241 BC). He captured all of Syria and Phenicia. Egyptian troops even entered the Seleucid capital, Antioch on the Orontes. Until the beginning of the 2nd century BC. under Egyptian control was an important trade route from India, passing through Philadelphia(now Amman in Jordan) to Ptolemais(Acre) and the Phoenician coast.
The last quarter of the 3rd century BC was a turning point in the history of Hellenistic Egypt. Accession of Ptolemy IV in 221 BC. was accompanied by a struggle in court circles. During the IV Syrian War, the pharaoh faced discontent among the Coptic warriors, caused by their inferior position in the army. An urgent peace agreement did not change the situation.
Unrest in the army grew into rebellions that began in Lower Egypt and then spread throughout the country. In Thebaid, popular unrest continued for about 20 years. The rebels attacked the lands of Greek colonists and opposed representatives of the local administration and priesthood. Only by 186 BC. the uprising was suppressed.
Taking advantage of the weakening of Egypt, Antiochus IV Epiphanes began the Sixth Syrian War (170-168 BC). In 169 BC. e. he invaded Egypt and captured Memphis. In 168 BC. e. Antiochus IV made a second campaign, subjugated almost the entire territory of Egypt and besieged Alexandria. His fleet captured Cyprus. Only the intervention of Rome forced Antiochus IV to leave Egypt.
Military failures and the cessation of the influx of taxes from external possessions worsened the internal situation in Egypt. The country entered a protracted economic and political crisis. The number of unprofitable, neglected lands grew. The irrigation system is deteriorating, and soil population is occurring. The government tried to increase the profitability of land by introducing compulsory rent. In addition to their own plots, the royal farmers were forced to cultivate neglected plots. But farmers responded to these measures by fleeing and leaving their villages.
The country was in a fever of constant struggle for power, reaching extreme bitterness. An example is the long struggle of Ptolemy VIII (145 - 116 BC) with his sister Cleopatra II, the widow of her brother Ptolemy VI. After killing her son, his nephew, he married her. Then Ptolemy VIII married her daughter from his first marriage, Cleopatra III. Cleopatra II, removed from power, did not resign herself. Taking advantage of the discontent of various segments of the population, she began a stubborn struggle against her brother. Eventually there was a reconciliation.
Cleopatra II was recognized as a sister queen along with queen wife Cleopatra III. On behalf of Ptolemy VIII and two Cleopatras in 118 BC. The so-called “decrees of philanthropy” were issued. They proclaimed an amnesty for all participants in the political struggle and a fight against the abuses of officials. However, these declarations were not supported by real deeds. The situation in the country continued to deteriorate. At the beginning of the 1st century BC. An uprising breaks out again in Thebaid. At Ptolemy XII Aulete(“Fluteist”, 80 -58 BC) riots swept across several nomes at once.
In foreign policy, Egypt gradually lost its independence and became an obedient servant of Rome. Story recent years the existence of independent Egypt is associated with the name of the famous queen Cleopatra VII(47 - 30 BC). She fought for the throne with her brother and husband Ptolemy XIII(51-47 BC).
Cleopatra was supported by a Roman commander Julius Caesar. The population of Alexandria, opposed to the dictates of Rome, rebelled. All winter 48-47 BC. A Roman military detachment led by Caesar withstood a siege at the residence of the Egyptian kings. When reinforcements arrived, Caesar defeated the rebels and the army of Ptolemy XIII. Cleopatra was declared queen.
After the death of Caesar, Cleopatra tried to strengthen Egypt, relying on the help of one of Caesar's associates, the ruler of the eastern provinces, Mark Antony. He married Cleopatra and gave her and her children part of the Roman possessions. Antony was soon defeated in a power struggle in Rome with Octavian, the future Emperor Augustus, and committed suicide. Cleopatra's attempts to negotiate with the winner ended in failure and she also committed suicide. Her son by Julius Caesar, Caesarion, was killed by order of Octavian. Egypt came under Roman rule.
Hellenistic Macedonia
Features of the monarchy. Like the rest of the largest Hellenistic states, Macedonia was a monarchy. After the end of the wars of the Diadochi, it was headed by the descendants Antigone Gonata- dynasty Antigonid.
The royal power in Macedonia did not reach the same degree of absolutism as in the Ptolemaic and Seleucid powers. There was no deification of kings here, and there was no developed bureaucratic apparatus. The force that traditionally limited the sovereign power of the monarch remained the army - the militia of Macedonian citizens, which, as it was believed, expressed the will of the entire people. The army meeting, in particular, approved the accession to the throne of the new king. It served as a judicial authority in the analysis of cases of some important state crimes.
During the Hellenistic era, Macedonia found itself in a very difficult situation. He had to compete with the powerful Ptolemaic and Seleucid monarchies, which were not comparable in size and economic resources. The country was weakened by the outflow of its best forces, which, during and after the campaigns of Alexander the Great, rushed to the eastern lands. Raids by northern tribes posed a constant danger. The bulk of the inhabitants of Macedonia were still free peasants. Therefore, the Macedonian kings did not, unlike the Hellenistic rulers in Asia and Africa, have such an inexhaustible source of income as the exploitation of the local conquered population.
Nevertheless, despite all the difficulties, during the first half of the Hellenistic era, Macedonia managed to maintain its high reputation, compete on equal terms for primacy with the Seleucid and Ptolemaic powers and exercise hegemony in Balkan Greece. This was possible thanks to the outstanding military, administrative and diplomatic abilities of most of the Macedonian kings. All-round savings in material and cash, strengthening the country's defense capability.
Armed forces were not as great as those of the Seleucids and Ptolemies. However, in terms of their combat effectiveness they were not inferior to them. The basis of the army was the phalanx, made up of peasants who were called up for military service only during campaigns. Was in a state of constant combat readiness agema- royal guard. Mercenaries were also involved. Among them, a significant part were barbarians - Thracians, Illyrians, Galatians. Many of them, after completing their service, received plots on royal land. Mercenaries, as a rule, guarded the border and garrisoned the Greek cities subordinate to the Antigonids.
The kings sought to transform Macedonia into a great maritime power. But in the end it turned out to be unbearable for the state to have both a powerful army and a fleet consisting of heavy warships. Therefore, subsequently it was based on light galleys - lembas, similar to those used by the Illyrian pirates.
Economy and cities. Having ascended the throne, Antigonus Gonatas implemented a number of measures to revive the country's economy. He and his successors contributed to the rise of cities, resettled the population to empty lands, and developed mines. The cities enjoyed autonomy in internal affairs, but were under the control of the tsarist administration. As a rule, it was carried out by a representative of the king - epistat. In territories not included in Macedonia proper, power belonged to strategists, appointed by the king.
Archaeological excavations showed that the cities of Macedonia were experiencing a period of growth at this time. Capital of Macedonia - Pella in the Hellenistic period it occupied an area of 3 square meters. km. From the south it was protected by a fortress located on an island in the middle of the lake. It contained the royal treasury and prison. On a high double-headed hill there was an acropolis with an old royal palace and a temple Athens Alkydemos. The city itself had a regular layout of streets oriented to the cardinal points. An important economic center of the country was Thessaloniki. This city also had a regular layout.
Mining remained one of the important sectors of the Macedonian economy. Forests provided excellent material for building ships. The basis of the Macedonian economy was still agriculture. However, it was not highly productive. The land tax gave the treasury only 200 talents. It is assumed that the kings received 1/10 of the harvest as a tax. The kings of Macedonia minted gold, silver and bronze coins. The main coin metal, unlike the time of Philip II, was silver.
In Macedonia, as in previous times, the bulk of the population were free peasants who owned their own plots of land and were apparently united in communities. Cities also owned land assigned to them, which was administered by the civil collective. On the territory of Macedonia proper there were no lands that could be defined as the royal domain. The kings owned only forests and mineral resources.
The land in the territories annexed to Macedonia, such as Chalkidiki and Paeonia, was controlled by the king. Part of it belongs directly to the monarch. This land was cultivated by peasant holders, apparently under the terms of hereditary lease. The other part was given to the soldiers as hereditary possession. The owner of the plot performed military service and paid taxes. Initially, these plots were inalienable, but over time they began to be sold. Lands were also given as “gifts” to representatives of the nobility. Due to the lack of the actual Macedonian population, the barbarian Thracians who settled in Macedonia also received plots of land with the obligation to perform military service.
Balkan Greece and Macedonia. The Macedonian kings aspired, like Philip II and Alexander the Great, to hegemony in Balkan Greece. As a personal union, they were tags of Thessaly, in which anti-Macedonian uprisings periodically occurred. The policies of the rest of Greece were formally free. But in many of them there were Macedonian garrisons. Their main stronghold was Corinth, the center of the Panhellenic Union formed under Philip II. In some policies of the Peloponnese, such as Elis, Megalopolis and Argos, pro-Macedonian tyrannical regimes were established.
The bulk of the Greek city-states were burdened by the hegemony of Macedonia and sought complete liberation from its influence. These sentiments led to the so-called Chremonides War, lasting from approximately 267 to 262 BC. e. It got its name from Chremonides, the leader of the anti-Macedonian party in Athens.
The initiator of the war was the king of Egypt, Ptolemy II, who sought to weaken the position of Macedonia. Under his auspices, a union was created that included Sparta, Achaia and Athens. This association enjoyed the support of all anti-Macedonian forces, especially in the Peloponnese. But the war was unsuccessful for the Greeks.
The Macedonian troops occupying Corinth prevented the unification of the forces of Athens and its Peloponnesian allies. The Spartan king Ares died during an attempt to break through the Isthmian Isthmus. Ultimately, Athena suffered the most as a result of the defeat. The city was taken by the Macedonians. Their garrisons were again stationed in Piraeus and in Athens itself. The Egyptian fleet was defeated by the Macedonians off the island of Kos around 261 BC. e., after which the Ptolemies lost their dominance in the Aegean Sea.
Kingdom of Pergamon
Quite a significant role in the Hellenistic world in the 3rd–2nd centuries. BC e. The kingdom of Pergamon played. Its founder Fileter from Tiey, son of the Macedonian Attalus and the Paphlagonian woman, became the founder of the dynasty Attalid. He managed to defend his right to power during the wars between the Diadochi and Epigones and transfer the possessions to his nephew Eumenes I(263 - 241 BC). The new ruler expanded his possessions. Around 261 BC Eumenes I defeated the army of the Syrian king Antiochus I, who laid claim to the lands of Pergamum, near Sardis.
His successor (son cousin Eumenes and the Syrian princess Antiochide) Attalus I(241–197 BC). He refused to pay tribute to the Galatians and defeated them under the walls of Pergamum. After this, Attalus took the title Soter - Savior. From 230 BC he began to call himself king. In 208 BC, during the First Macedonian War, Attalus I entered into a military alliance with Rome, which sent a squadron to the Aegean Sea. The combined fleet of Pergamon and Rome began to dominate the region.
The establishment of friendly relations with the Roman Republic acquired special significance for the Kingdom of Pergamon due to the fact that in Asia Minor it had dangerous opponents in the person of the Seleucids and the Bithynian Kingdom. The son and successor of Attalus I understood this Eumenes II(197–160 BC). He was one of Rome's most loyal allies in the war with Antiochus III. After the defeat of the Syrian king Attalus I, with the consent of the Romans, included into his possessions Thracian Chersonese, Lydia, Greater and Hellespontian Phrygia, part of Caria and Pamphylia, and a number of Greek cities of Asia Minor, including Ephesus.
After winning the war with Antiochus III, Roman troops were in no hurry to leave the peninsula. The defeat of Syria weakened the force that restrained the Galatian activity from which all the states of the region suffered. In 189 BC. The Roman consul Gnaeus Manlius Vulso, together with the king of Pergamon, made a campaign deep into the territory of the Galatians, which the Romans called Gallogrecia. In several battles, the barbarians were defeated, losing tens of thousands of people killed. More Galatians were captured and enslaved. As a result, at the beginning of the 2nd century BC. e. The Kingdom of Pergamon became one of the largest Hellenistic states, covering almost all of Asia Minor.
Features of the Pergamon monarchy and society. The Attalids were considered "democratic" monarchs. In Pergamum there was no deification of the king and queen. In the decrees the kings called themselves citizens of Pergamum. The bureaucratic apparatus was modest in size and influence on society. The Pergamon army, recruited mainly on a mercenary basis, consisted not only of Greeks, but also of representatives of local peoples.
Pergamon Society represented a synthesis of Greek and Eastern elements, which was characteristic of all Hellenistic states. However, its peculiarity was the predominance of Greek elements. This determined the homogeneity and strength of Pergamon society.
Economy. The economic prosperity of Pergamon was facilitated by a mild climate, fertile soils and rich pastures, a combination of river valleys and low hills suitable for growing vineyards and olive trees, and an advantageous location near the Black Sea straits.
Most the land was royal property. The farmers who lived on it were considered as tenants paying taxes and bearing duties in favor of the royal treasury. Part of the royal lands was ceded for free possession to representatives of the ruling elite, bureaucracy, and senior command staff. Large estates arose on these lands, cultivated by slave labor. Slaves were also used in other sectors of the economy.
In the Pergamon economy the share of trade, crafts and commodity production was quite high. Handicraft production developed on rich reserves of local raw materials: good varieties clay, metals, wood and resin, skins and wool obtained from own livestock. Products of craft workshops - jewelry, parchment, leather writing material, various types of fabrics, including the famous Attalid brocade woven with gold threads, was famous throughout the Mediterranean.
Having significant surpluses of grain, olive oil, and handicraft products, Pergamum conducted active foreign trade, which brought huge profits. The Attalids founded not many new cities of the Greek type. But almost all of them became important trading centers. Among them it should be noted Eleus- port of the city of Pergamon, Helenopol on the shore of the Propontis, through which goods passed to the Black Sea region, Attalia in Pamphylia, on the southern coast of Asia Minor, connected by land road with the largest centers of the country. A thriving economy made the Attalids one of the richest rulers of the Hellenistic world. Enormous wealth accumulated in their hands, causing envy not only among their neighbors, but also among the distant Roman state.
End of the Kingdom of Pergamon. Eumenes II was succeeded by his brother Attalus II Philadelphia, reigned 159 -137. BC His reign was marred by wars with the king of Bithynia. The Galatian invasions resumed. The country's situation became even more complicated under Attale III(139–133 BC). He had to wage war with a coalition of Asia Minor states - Bithynia, Galatia, Cappadocia and Pontus. Social conflicts intensified, largely caused by the cruelty and reckless actions of the tsar.
Before his death, the childless Attalus III bequeathed his kingdom to the Roman Republic. A Roman province was founded in its place Asia. It included the historical regions of Mysia, Lydia, Caria and Phrygia. The liquidation of the kingdom caused a powerful explosion of popular indignation. It resulted in an uprising, led by Aristonik- natural son of Attalus II. A few years later, this uprising was suppressed by Roman troops. Aristonicus was captured and strangled in a Roman prison.
Rhodes.
Rhodes Island has been inhabited since the Neolithic. In the 16th century BC. e. was part of the Minoan empire in the 15th century BC. e. was under the control of the Mycenaeans from the Peloponnese. In the 8th century BC. e. Dorian settlements appear on the island. It was occupied by the Persians, but liberated by the Athenians in 478 BC. e. In 408 BC. e. three Dorian policies - Lindos(Lind), Ialyssos And Kamiros, located on the island, merged into one.
The capital of the state is a city Rhodes was rebuilt by the architect Hippodamus with a regular layout. It was located around a round bay, “like a theater around an orchestra.” Rhodes had two ports - commercial and military. The latter was carefully guarded, since the Rhodians sought to keep secret a number of improvements they made on warships.
After the collapse of the power of Alexander the Great in Rhodes, the influence of Ptolemy I was strong. He entered into an alliance with the polis that controlled trade in the eastern Mediterranean. The flourishing of the state began. At this time, it included not only the island, but also territories in Asia Minor. Strabo wrote about Rhodes: “In terms of harbours, roads, walls and other structures, it compares so favorably with all other cities that I cannot name another approximately equal or, much less, somewhat better than it.”
The political system of Rhodes was oligarchic. However, the enormous wealth at the disposal of the elite of the city allowed it to bribe the demos, so that, according to Strabo, “not only the poor receive their food, but the city also has no shortage of useful people, especially to replenish the fleet.”
The prosperity of Rhodes was largely due to its profitable geographical location on the sea routes leading from Greece and the Western Mediterranean to the new city centers that arose in the East during the Hellenistic era. The enormous scale of maritime trade is confirmed by the finds of hundreds of thousands of Rhodian amphora stamps in all parts of the ancient world - from Susa in the east to Carthage in the west, from the Bosporus in the north to Egypt in the south. The Rhodians traded mainly in grain, most often of Egyptian origin, wine and olive oil. Judging by the epigraphy, there were large weapons workshops on the island, the products of which were exported.
In many coastal cities there were offices of Rhodesian trapezites, who lent money for maritime trade at moderate interest rates. Rhodes waged a merciless fight against pirates. His navy was one of the strongest in the Mediterranean. After 250 BC e., when the power of the Ptolemaic power weakened, it was the Rhodian fleet that ensured freedom of navigation in the Eastern Mediterranean. A special “law of the sea” was created in Rhodes, which, thanks to the Romans and Byzantines, has survived to the present day.
