The number of styles and trends is huge, if not infinite. The key feature by which works can be grouped into styles is the common principles of artistic thinking. The replacement of some methods of artistic thinking by others (alternation of types of compositions, methods of spatial construction, color features) is not accidental. Our perception of art has also historically changed.
By building a system of styles in a hierarchical order, we will adhere to the Eurocentric tradition. The most important concept in the history of art is the concept of era. Each era is characterized by a certain “picture of the world”, which consists of philosophical, religious, political ideas, scientific concepts, psychological characteristics of worldview, ethical and moral standards, aesthetic criteria of life, by which one era is distinguished from another. These are the Primitive era, the era Ancient world, Antiquity, Middle Ages, Renaissance, Modern times.
Styles in art do not have clear boundaries; they smoothly transform into one another and are in continuous development, mixing and opposition. Within the framework of one historical artistic style, a new one is always born, and that, in turn, passes into the next. Many styles coexist at the same time and therefore there are no “pure styles” at all.
Several styles can coexist in the same historical era. For example, Classicism, Academicism and Baroque in the 17th century, Rococo and Neoclassicism in the 18th century, Romanticism and Academicism in the 19th century. Styles such as classicism and baroque are called great styles because they apply to all types of art: architecture, painting, decorative and applied arts, literature, music.
It is necessary to distinguish: artistic styles, directions, trends, schools and features of the individual styles of individual masters. Within one style there can be several artistic movements. An artistic direction consists of both typical characteristics of a given era and unique methods of artistic thinking. Art Nouveau style, for example, includes a number of trends from the turn of the century: post-impressionism, symbolism, fauvism, etc. On the other hand, the concept of symbolism as an artistic movement is well developed in literature, while in painting it is very vague and unites artists who are so different stylistically that they are often interpreted only as a worldview that unites them.
Below will be given definitions of eras, styles and trends that are one way or another reflected in modern fine and decorative arts.
| - artistic style, formed in the countries of Western and Central Europe in the XII-XV centuries. It was the result of centuries of evolution medieval art, its highest stage and at the same time the first pan-European, international artistic style in history. He covered all types of art - architecture, sculpture, painting, stained glass, book design, decorative and applied arts. basis gothic style there was an architecture that is characterized by pointed arches directed upward, multi-colored stained glass windows, and a visual dematerialization of form. Elements of Gothic art can often be found in modern interior design, in particular in wall paintings, and less often in easel paintings. Since the end of the last century, there has been a gothic subculture, clearly manifested in music, poetry, and clothing design. |
|
| (Renaissance) - (French Renaissance, Italian Rinascimento) An era in cultural and ideological development a number of countries in Western and Central Europe, as well as some countries Eastern Europe. The main distinctive features of Renaissance culture: secular character, humanistic worldview, appeal to antiquity cultural heritage, a kind of “revival” of it (hence the name). The culture of the Renaissance has specific features of the transitional era from the Middle Ages to modern times, in which the old and the new, intertwining, form a unique, qualitatively new alloy. A difficult question is the chronological boundaries of the Renaissance (in Italy - 14-16 centuries, in other countries - 15-16 centuries), its territorial distribution and national characteristics. Elements of this style in contemporary art quite often used in wall paintings, less often in easel painting. | |
 |
- (from Italian maniera - technique, manner) current in European art XVI century. Representatives of mannerism moved away from the Renaissance harmonious perception of the world, the humanistic concept of man as a perfect creation of nature. A keen perception of life was combined with a programmatic desire not to follow nature, but to express a subjective “inner idea” artistic image, born in the soul of an artist. It manifested itself most clearly in Italy. For Italian mannerism of the 1520s. (Pontormo, Parmigianino, Giulio Romano) are characterized by dramatic sharpness of images, tragic worldview, complexity and exaggerated expression of poses and motives of movement, elongated proportions of figures, coloristic and light and shadow dissonances. Recently, it has begun to be used by art historians to refer to phenomena in contemporary art associated with the transformation of historical styles. |
| - a historical artistic style that became widespread initially in Italy in the middle. XVI-XVII centuries, and then in France, Spain, Flanders and Germany in the XVII-XVIII centuries. More broadly, this term is used to define the ever-renewing tendencies of a restless, romantic attitude, thinking in expressive, dynamic forms. Finally, in every time, in almost every historical artistic style, one can find its own “Baroque period” as a stage of the highest creative upsurge, tension of emotions, explosiveness of forms. | |
| - artistic style in Western European art of the 17th - early years. XIX century and in Russian XVIII- beginning XIX, who turned to the ancient heritage as an ideal to follow. It manifested itself in architecture, sculpture, painting, decorative and applied arts. Classical artists considered antiquity highest achievement and made it their standard in art, which they sought to imitate. Over time, it degenerated into academicism. | |
| - a direction in European and Russian art of the 1820-1830s, which replaced classicism. The Romantics highlighted individuality, contrasting the ideal beauty of the classicists with an “imperfect” reality. Artists were attracted to bright, rare, extraordinary phenomena, as well as images of a fantastic nature. In the art of romanticism, acute individual perception and experience play an important role. Romanticism liberated art from abstract classicist dogmas and turned it towards national history and images of folklore. | |
 |
- (from Latin sentiment - feeling) - a direction in Western art of the second half of the 18th century, expressing disappointment in “civilization” based on the ideals of “reason” (Enlightenment ideology). S. proclaims feeling, solitary reflection, simplicity rural life “little man" J. J. Rousseau is considered the ideologist of S. |
| - a direction in art that strives to depict with the greatest truth and reliability both the external form and the essence of phenomena and things. How a creative method combines individual and typical features when creating an image. The longest direction in existence, developing from the primitive era to the present day. | |
| - direction in European artistic culture of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Emerging as a reaction to the dominance of the norms of bourgeois “common sense” in the humanitarian sphere (in philosophy, aesthetics - positivism, in art - naturalism), symbolism primarily took shape in French literature of the late 1860-70s, and later became widespread in Belgium and Germany , Austria, Norway, Russia. Aesthetic principles symbolism largely went back to the ideas of romanticism, as well as to some doctrines idealistic philosophy A. Schopenhauer, E. Hartmann, partly F. Nietzsche, to the work and theorizing of the German composer R. Wagner. Symbolism contrasted living reality with the world of visions and dreams. A symbol generated by poetic insight and expressing the otherworldly meaning of phenomena hidden from ordinary consciousness was considered a universal tool for comprehending the secrets of existence and individual consciousness. The creative artist was seen as a mediator between the real and the supersensible, everywhere finding “signs” of world harmony, prophetically guessing signs of the future both in modern phenomena and in events of the past. | |
| - (from the French impression - impression) a movement in art of the last third of the 19th - early 20th centuries, which arose in France. The name was introduced by the art critic L. Leroy, who disparaged the exhibition of artists in 1874, where, among others, the painting “Sunrise” by C. Monet was presented. Impression". Impressionism promoted beauty real world, emphasizing the freshness of the first impression and the variability of the environment. The predominant attention to solving purely pictorial problems reduced the traditional idea of drawing as the main component of a work of art. Impressionism had a powerful impact on art European countries and the USA, awakened interest in real-life stories. (E. Manet, E. Degas, O. Renoir, C. Monet, A. Sisley, etc.) | |
| - a movement in painting (synonymous with divisionism), which developed within the framework of neo-impressionism. Neo-Impressionism originated in France in 1885 and also spread to Belgium and Italy. Neo-Impressionists tried to apply in art latest achievements in the field of optics, according to which painting made with separate dots of primary colors in visual perception gives a fusion of colors and the entire gamut of painting. (J. Seurat, P. Signac, C. Pissarro). | |
 |
Post-Impressionism- a conditional collective name for the main directions of French painting in the XIX - 1st quarter. XX century The art of post-impressionism arose as a reaction to impressionism, which focused on conveying the moment, on the feeling of picturesqueness and lost interest in the shape of objects. Among the post-impressionists are P. Cezanne, P. Gauguin, V. Gogh and others. |
| - style in European and American art at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. Modernism reinterpreted and stylized the features of art from different eras, and developed its own artistic techniques based on the principles of asymmetry, ornamentality and decorativeness. Natural forms also become the object of modernity stylization. This explains not only the interest in floral ornaments in modernist works, but also their very compositional and plastic structure - the abundance of curvilinear outlines, floating nerves, new contours reminiscent of plant forms. Closely connected with modernity is symbolism, which served as the aesthetic and philosophical basis for modernity, relying on modernity as a plastic realization of its ideas. Art Nouveau had different names in different countries, which are essentially synonymous: Art Nouveau - in France, Secession - in Austria, Art Nouveau - in Germany, Liberty - in Italy. |
|
 |
- (from the French modern - modern) the general name of a number of art movements of the first half of the 20th century, which are characterized by the denial of traditional forms and aesthetics of the past. Modernism is close to avant-gardeism and opposite to academicism. |
| - a name that unites a range of artistic movements common in the 1905-1930s. (Fauvism, Cubism, Futurism, Expressionism, Dadaism, Surrealism). All these directions are united by the desire to renew the language of art, rethink its tasks, and gain freedom of artistic expression. | |
 |
- direction in art from XIX - AD. XX century, based on creative lessons French artist Paul Cezanne, who reduced all forms in the image to the simplest geometric shapes, and color - to contrasting constructions of warm and cold tones. Cezanne served as one of the starting points for Cubism. To a large extent, Cézanneism also influenced the domestic realistic school of painting. |
 |
- (from fauve - wild) avant-garde movement in French art. XX century The name “wild” was given by modern critics to a group of artists who performed in 1905 at the Paris Salon of Independents, and was ironic. The group included A. Matisse, A. Marquet, J. Rouault, M. de Vlaminck, A. Derain, R. Dufy, J. Braque, C. van Dongen and others. The Fauvists were brought together by their attraction to laconic expressiveness of forms and intense coloristic solutions , the search for impulses in primitive creativity, the art of the Middle Ages and the East. |
| - deliberate simplification of visual means, imitation of primitive stages of art development. This term refers to the so-called. naive art of artists who did not receive special education, but were involved in the general artistic process late XIX - early. XX century. The works of these artists - N. Pirosmani, A. Russo, V. Selivanov and others - are characterized by a peculiar childishness in the interpretation of nature, a combination of a generalized form and petty literalness in detail. Primitivism of form does not at all predetermine the primitiveness of content. It often serves as a source for professionals who borrow forms, images, and methods from folk, essentially primitive art. N. Goncharova, M. Larionov, P. Picasso, A. Matisse drew inspiration from primitivism. | |
 |
- a direction in art that developed on the basis of following the canons of antiquity and the Renaissance. It was common in many European schools of art from the 16th to the 19th centuries. Academicism turned classical traditions into a system of “eternal” rules and regulations that fettered creative searches, he tried to contrast imperfect living nature with “high” improved, non-national and timeless forms of beauty brought to perfection. Academicism is characterized by a preference for subjects from ancient mythology, biblical or historical themes from contemporary artist life. |
| - (French cubisme, from cube - cube) direction in art of the first quarter of the 20th century. The plastic language of cubism was based on the deformation and decomposition of objects on geometric planes, a plastic shift of shape. The birth of Cubism occurred in 1907-1908 - the eve of the First World War. The undisputed leader of this trend was the poet and publicist G. Apollinaire. This movement was one of the first to embody the leading trends in the further development of art of the twentieth century. One of these trends was the dominance of the concept over the artistic value of the painting. J. Braque and P. Picasso are considered the fathers of cubism. Fernand Leger, Robert Delaunay, Juan Gris and others joined the emerging movement. | |
| - a movement in literature, painting and cinema that arose in 1924 in France. It contributed significantly to the formation of consciousness modern man. The main figures of the movement are Andre Breton, Louis Aragon, Salvador Dali, Luis Buñuel, Joan Miro and many other artists from all over the world. Surrealism expressed the idea of existence beyond the real; the absurd, the unconscious, dreams, and daydreams play a particularly important role here. One of the characteristic methods of the surrealist artist is the withdrawal from conscious creativity, which makes it a tool that in various ways extracts bizarre images of the subconscious, akin to hallucinations. Surrealism survived several crises, survived the Second World War and gradually, merging with popular culture, intersecting with the transavantgarde, entered as an integral part of postmodernism. | |
 |
- (from Latin futurum - future) literary-artistic movement in the art of the 1910s. Assigning itself the role of a prototype of the art of the future, futurism as its main program put forward the idea of destructing cultural stereotypes and instead offered an apologia for technology and lowness as the main signs of the present and the future. An important artistic idea of futurism was the search for a plastic expression of the speed of movement as the main sign of the pace of modern life. The Russian version of futurism was called cubofuturism and was based on a combination of the plastic principles of French cubism and European general aesthetic installations of futurism izma. |
PAINTING AND ITS TYPES?
Painting is the art of a plane and one point of view, where space and volume exist only in illusion.
A great variety and completeness of phenomena, impressions, effects that painting can embody. The whole world of feelings, characters, relationships, experiences is accessible to painting. She has access to the most subtle observations of nature, eternal ideas, impressions, and subtle shades of mood.
The word “painting” is derived from the words “vividly” and “write”. “To paint,” explains Dahl, “to depict faithfully and vividly with a brush or words, a pen.” For the painter, depicting correctly means accurate rendering appearance what he saw, its most important signs. It was possible to convey them correctly using graphic means - line and tone. But it is impossible to convey vividly with these limited means the multicolor of the surrounding world, the pulsation of life in every centimeter of the colored surface of an object, the charm of this life and constant movement and change. Painting, one of the types of fine art, helps to truthfully reflect the color of the real world.
Color - the main visual and expressive means in painting - has tone, saturation and lightness; it seems to fuse into a whole everything characteristic of an object: both what can be depicted by a line and what is inaccessible to it.
Painting, like graphics, uses light and dark lines, strokes and spots, but unlike it, these lines, strokes and spots are colored. They convey the color of the light source through glare and brightly lit surfaces, sculpt a three-dimensional form with subject (local) color and color reflected by the environment, establish spatial relationships and depth, and depict the texture and materiality of objects.
The task of painting is not only to show something, but also to reveal the inner essence of what is depicted, to reproduce “typical characters in typical circumstances.” Therefore, a truthful artistic generalization of the phenomena of life is the basis of the foundations of realistic painting.
1. TYPES OF PAINTING
Painting is divided into monumental, decorative, theatrical and decorative, miniature and easel.
Monumental painting-- this is a special type paintings large scale, decorating the walls and ceilings of architectural structures. It reveals the content of major social phenomena that have had a positive impact on the development of society, glorifies them and perpetuates them, helping to educate people in the spirit of patriotism, progress and humanity. The sublimity of the content of monumental painting, the significant size of its works, and the connection with architecture require large color masses, strict simplicity and laconism of composition, clarity of contours and generality of plastic form.
Decorative painting used to decorate buildings and interiors in the form of colorful panels, which with realistic images create the illusion of breaking through the wall, visually increasing the size of the room, or, on the contrary, using deliberately flattened forms, they assert the flatness of the wall and the enclosure of the space. Patterns, wreaths, garlands and other types of decor that decorate works of monumental painting and sculpture tie together all the elements of the interior, emphasizing their beauty and consistency with the architecture.
Theatrical and decorative painting(scenery, costumes, makeup, props, made according to the artist’s sketches) helps to further reveal the content of the performance. Special theatrical conditions for perceiving the scenery require taking into account multiple points of view of the audience, their great distance, impact artificial lighting and colored lights. The scenery gives an idea of the place and time of the action, and activates the viewer’s perception of what is happening on stage. The theater artist strives in sketches of costumes and makeup to acutely express the individual character of the characters, their social status, style of the era and much more.
Miniature painting received great development in the Middle Ages, before the invention of printing. Handwritten books were decorated with the finest headpieces, endings, and detailed miniature illustrations. Russian artists of the first half of the 19th century skillfully used the miniature painting technique to create small (mainly watercolor) portraits. Pure deep watercolor colors, their exquisite combinations, and the exquisite fineness of the writing distinguish these portraits, full of grace and nobility.
Easel painting, performed on a machine - an easel, uses wood, cardboard, paper as a material basis, but most often canvas stretched on a stretcher. An easel painting, being an independent work, can depict absolutely everything: factual and fictional by the artist, inanimate objects and people, modernity and history - in a word, life in all its manifestations. Unlike graphics, easel painting has a richness of color, which helps emotionally, psychologically, multifacetedly and subtly convey the beauty of the world around us.
Based on technique and means of execution, painting is divided into oil, tempera, fresco, wax, mosaic, stained glass, watercolor, gouache, and pastel. These names were derived from the binder or from the method of using material and technical means.
Oil painting It is done with paint rubbed off with vegetable oils. Thick paint thins out when oil or special thinners and varnishes are added to it. Oil paint can be used on canvas, wood, cardboard, paper, and metal.
Tempera painting is done with paint prepared with egg yolk or casein. Tempera paint is dissolved with water and applied paste or liquid onto the wall, canvas, paper, wood. In Rus', tempera was used to create wall paintings, icons and patterns on household items. Nowadays, tempera is used in painting and graphics, in decorative and applied arts and artistic design.
Fresco painting decorates interiors in the form of monumental and decorative compositions applied to wet plaster with water-based paints. The fresco has a pleasant matte surface and is durable in indoor conditions.
Wax painting(encaustic) was also used by artists of Ancient Egypt, as evidenced by the famous “Fayum portraits” (1st century AD). The binder in encaustic painting is bleached wax. Wax paints are applied in a molten state to a heated base, after which they are burned.
Mosaic painting, or mosaic, is assembled from individual pieces of smalt or colored stones and fixed on a special cement primer. Transparent smalt, inserted into the ground at different angles, reflects or refracts light, causing the color to flare and shimmer. Mosaic panels can be found in the subway, in theater and museum interiors, etc. Stained glass painting - works decorative arts, intended for decorating window openings in any architectural structure. Stained glass is made from pieces of colored glass held together by a strong metal frame. The luminous flux, breaking through the colored surface of the stained glass window, draws decoratively spectacular, multi-colored patterns on the floor and walls of the interior.
MATERIAL IN PAINTING WORKS.
According to technique and means of execution, painting is divided into oil, tempera, fresco, wax, mosaic, stained glass, watercolor, gouache, pastel.
Materials for easel painting: wood was originally used. It was used in Egypt, Ancient Greece.
During the early Renaissance in the 14th century, a painting and a frame for it were made from one piece. (in Italy of the 15th-16th centuries, poplar was most often used, less often willow, ash, and walnut. In the early days, thick boards were used, not planed on the back side. In the Netherlands, France, from the 16th century, oak boards began to be used. In Germany, linden, beech, spruce).
Since the 18th century, wood has been losing its popularity. “Canvas” appears. It is already found among ancient artists. Canvas is combined with wood. In this era, canvas is still used sporadically. Canvas reached widespread use only in the 15th-16th centuries. Used for tempera.
From the second half of the 16th century, copper boards appeared for small paintings (especially popular in Flanders).
In the 19th century, cardboard was sometimes used for sketching.
In the painting of the Middle Ages and the early Renaissance, a rich polished ground of gypsum and chalk dominates. In the 13th-14th centuries, gold was used to cover the white primer. At the end of the 14th century, the gold primer gradually disappeared. Instead of plaster or chalk, prime with oil paint.B late XVI century colorful primer oil paints receives full recognition in Italy. Reddish-brown soil was popular. (BOLUS)
The decisive step is taken in early XVIII century, a bifurcation occurs to the three-pencil technique.
The 18th century was the heyday of the bed (the greatest masters were Chardin, Latour, Lyotard).
Watercolor begins very late, later than pastel. The watercolor technique has been known for a very long time. It was already known in Ancient Egypt and China. Watercolor was used by medieval miniaturists.
Since the end of the 15th century, the popularity of oil painting has been increasing. In the 16th century it replaced tempera.
French romantics of the early 19th century were fond of bitumen (or asphalt).
MAIN TYPES OF PERSPECTIVE IN PAINTING
Perspective is the science of depicting objects in space on a plane or any surface in accordance with the apparent changes in their sizes, changes in shape and light-and-shadow relationships that are observed in nature.
(Classical perspective corresponds to a certain intellectual level, within which one’s own point of view cannot differ from others, and its practical implementation can in fact represent a type of self-sufficient technical perfection.
Dynamic perspective is a special form of primitive perspective.
The word “painting” comes from the Russian words “live” and “write”, resulting in the phrase “living letter”. Painting means an image of the real world, drawn using improvised materials (pencils, paints, plasticine, etc.) on flat surfaces. We can say that the projection of the real world through the prism of the artist’s imagination is also
Types of painting
This is replete with a variety of types and techniques for depicting reality, which depend not only on the technique of execution of the artist’s work and the materials used, but also on the content and semantic message of creativity. In order to convey feelings, emotions and thoughts, the artist first of all uses the rules of playing with color and light: the relationship of color shades and the play of highlights and shadows. Thanks to this secret, the paintings turn out to be truly alive.
To achieve this effect, you need to skillfully use colorful materials. Therefore, painting, the types of which depend on the drawing technique and types of paint, can use watercolor, oil, tempera, pastel, gouache, wax, acrylic, etc. It all depends on the desire of the artist.
In the fine arts there are the following main types of painting:
1. Monumental painting. The very name of this type of art suggests that the creation will live for many centuries. This type implies a symbiosis of architecture and fine art. Monumental painting can most often be seen in religious temples: these are painted walls, vaults, arches and ceilings. When the drawing and the building itself become one, such works have deep meaning and carry global cultural value. Frescoes more often fall under this type of painting. As a rule, they are made not only with paints, but also with ceramic tiles, glass, colored stones, shell rock, etc.
2. Easel painting. Types of such fine art are very common and accessible to any artist. For painting to be considered easel, the creator will need a canvas (easel) and a frame for it. Thus, the painting will be independent in nature, and it makes no difference where and in what architectural structure it is located.
3. The types and forms of expression of creativity are limitless, and this type of art can serve as proof. has existed for thousands of years: these are home decorations, painting dishes, creating souvenirs, painting fabrics, furniture, etc. The essence of creativity is that the object and the design on it become one whole. It is considered bad taste when an artist depicts a completely inappropriate design on an object.
4. implies visual design for theater performances, as well as cinema. This type of art allows the viewer to more accurately understand and accept the image of a play, performance or film.
Genres of painting
In the theory of art, it is also important to distinguish between genres of painting, each of which has its own characteristics:
Portrait.
Still life.
Iconography.
Animalism.
Story.
These are the main ones that have existed for a long time in the history of art. But progress does not stand still. Every year the list of genres grows and increases. Thus, abstraction and fantasy, minimalism, etc. appeared.
Types of fine arts.
Painting
Painting is one of the oldest species art associated with the transmission of visual images through the application of paints to a solid or flexible base. The most common works of painting are those executed on flat or almost flat surfaces, such as canvas stretched on a stretcher, wood, cardboard, paper, treated wall surfaces, etc. In a narrow sense, the term painting is contrasted with works created on paper, for which the term is used - graphics
Irina Shanko
"March, on the shores of the Gulf of Finland"
oil on canvas
33/58
2011
Classification.
Painting can also be divided into easel and monumental. Here is an approximate division into these types, although almost any material of easel painting can be used in monumental painting. Easel painting includes “small” works that can be placed on an easel or on several. Monumental painting, the basis of which is usually not tolerated - a wall, ceiling, etc.
Easel:
Oil painting is a technique that uses paints with vegetable oil as the main binder. Oil paints consist of dry pigments and drying oil.
Shanko Irina, "Sleeping Boats", oil on canvas, 50/60, 2014
Tempera painting, the binder is the yolk of a chicken egg.
This type of painting got its name from the name of the paint - tempera. The word is based on the Latin temperare, which means “to mix.” The production technology for this paint was approximately as follows. The pigments were ground with water and dried. Then they were mixed with an egg, diluted glue, vinegar, wine or beer.
The technique of painting with tempera consisted of sequential application of several layers. A light coat of paint was applied to the prepared surface. First, the artists outlined the contours, depicted the environment, nature, and clothing. Images of people were drawn on final stage. At the same time, in tempera painting it was very important that each of the layers dried well, otherwise the subsequent ones could blur. Fortunately, the structure of the paints allowed them to dry very quickly. Therefore, the artist’s work on the image proceeded almost continuously.
Andrei Rublev, "Trinity", 1411 or 1425-27, wood, tempera, 142/114 cm, state Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Glue painting, based on animal glue. A technique in which glue serves as a binder for the pigment: animal (fish, flesh, bone, casein) or plant (starch, gum, tragacanth).
The paints in glue painting are opaque, opaque, the painting surface is matte. At great content Glue in paint makes the surface shine and the color becomes more intense.
Mary with sleeping Jesus, 1455.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Encaustic painting, painting with wax paints.
Encaustic (from ancient Greek ἐγκαυστική - [the art of] burning) is a painting technique in which wax is the binder of paints. Painting is done with melted paints (hence the name).
Apostle Peter (beginning of the 6th century)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Monumental:
Fresco, one of the wall painting techniques characterized by painting on wet plaster.
Fresco (from Italian fresco - fresh), affresco (Italian affresco) - painting on wet plaster is one of the wall painting techniques, the opposite of "A secco" (painting on dry). When dried, the lime contained in the plaster forms a thin transparent calcium film, making the fresco durable.
Currently, the term “fresco” can be used to refer to any wall painting, regardless of its technique (secco, tempera, oil painting, acrylic painting, etc.). Sometimes they paint on an already dry fresco with tempera.
Roman fresco, 40-30 BC. e.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
And secco, as opposed to fresco, is painting on dry plaster.
And secco is also called casein and silicate painting (Mineral painting is a technical type of monumental painting based on the use of soluble glass as a binder.) on dried plaster. It is used to perform work on both internal and external surfaces of buildings. The technique allows for subsequent adjustments with tempera and washing with clean water.
Leonardo da Vinci. Last Supper.1498
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Sgraphito, mural painting, the essence of which is the multi-level application of paint.
Sgraffito (Italian sgraffito) or graffito (Italian graffito) is a technique for creating wall images, the advantage of which is their great durability.
The simplest case of two-color sgraffito is the application of one layer of plaster to the wall, which differs in color from the base. If you scratch a layer in some places, the lower one, of a different color, will be exposed and you will get a two-color pattern. To obtain a multi-color sgraffito, several layers of plaster of different colors are applied to the wall (the plaster is painted with different pigments); the plaster is then scraped off to varying depths to expose a layer of the desired color.
Such paintings are very labor-intensive and difficult to correct, therefore, when painting using this technique, a stencil is often used to avoid mistakes.
Two-color sgraffito, Březnice, Czech Republic
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Acrylic, water-dispersed paints.
Acrylic paints become darker as they dry. They can also be used as an alternative to oil paint using well-known techniques. They dry very quickly - this is their advantage over other paints. It can be applied either in a very liquid, diluted state (diluted with water), or in a paste-like state, thickened with special thickeners used by artists, while acrylic does not form cracks, unlike oil paints. The paint is applied as an even film, has a slight shine, does not require fixing with fixatives or varnishes, and has the property of forming a film that can be washed off after drying only with special solvents.
Acrylic paints and varnishes can be used on any non-greasy base.
Fresh acrylic paint It can be easily removed from objects with water, but when it dries it requires special solvents.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Image on a plane of objects of the material and spiritual world. One of the main types of fine art. Painting is divided into numerous types and genres. Oil painting is a work painted with oil paints. Wall painting is a work of painting executed directly on a specially prepared masonry surface of a wall, ceiling or vault of a building. Another name is monumental painting. Tempera painting is the main technique of icon painting in Russia. The basis of tempera paint is the yolk of a chicken egg diluted with kvass. During the work process, paints are applied gradually, in multi-layers and in a certain order. Since the 17th century To this day, the final layer is sometimes done with oil paints. The icon is written on a specially treated board.
Great definition
Incomplete definition ↓
Painting
Pictores and Pictura.
The art of life among the Greeks was in close connection with sculpture, sharing with it an ideal worldview and was in this infant state for a very long time. Before the Persian Wars, painters seemed to use one-color paint with which they drew outlines, while shadows were indicated by shading. The most ancient place of this art in Greece was, in all likelihood, the Dorian Peloponnese, mainly Corinth and Sikyon; the Corinthian Cleanthes, they say, was the first to draw silhouettes, Ardik and Telephanes improved linear drawings, Cleophant invented one-color painting (monochromy), Kiomnus of Cleon was the first to give movement and inclination to his figures and was the first to pay attention to the drapery of the figures. Until the 94th century, when the Athenian Apollodorus introduced the brush, all the art of Jeanne consisted of drawing images using a stylus on a board previously coated with paint; The paints themselves were applied in bulk and not seamlessly using a sponge. In general, in the paintings of the most ancient painters there are only 4 colors ( Plin. 35, 7, 32): white and black, yellow and red. Even Zeuxis himself used these only colors, but if anyone used a larger number of colors, he was in danger of detracting from the height of art by increasing his attractiveness. Works of this type of art included partly wall paintings (mainly alfresco), and partly paintings painted on boards; the former were written on fresh plaster, and the latter on wood and embedded in the walls, for example, of temples. Pictures were painted on boards with glue paints; later encaustic paintings were painted with wax paints, which were ground with dry leads and then melted using a brazier. Age of Pericles, therefore the middle and 2nd half of the 5th century. BC, is considered the time of greatest prosperity of this art, along with the prosperity of all fine arts, which served as a help to J. Large-sized paintings also belong to this time; not only painted halls appeared, but also actual art galleries (pinakotheks). Mention should be made of Pinenus, the brother of Phidias, and the Thasian Polygiotas (who received the right of citizenship in Athens in 463), known from the picture they painted together "Marathon Battle" V??????? in Athens. The latter was famous for his art of painting women in see-through clothes; he eliminated the immobility in facial expression borrowed from the Egyptians by drawing his mouth somewhat open; his paintings were truly portraits (in one, for example, you can easily recognize Elpinika, Kimon’s sister), painted from life, but carried away into an ideal world. Pausanias (10, 25) has preserved an excellent description of one of the largest paintings located in Lesha ( cm.?????, Lesha) at Delphi, which depicted the conquered and smoking Troy and the Greeks at the Hellespont, laden with booty and surrounded by prisoners, at the moment when they are preparing to sail: “The artist was quite able to depict here the contrast between the groups of Greeks in the foreground and the destruction of Troy, the devastated streets of which are visible through the walls broken in places. The ship of Menelaus stood near the shore, ready to sail; near it one can see Helen, the culprit of the war, surrounded by wounded Trojans; in another group of Greek leaders, Cassandra is visible; Almost everyone remains deeply silent, with the exception of Neoptolemus, who still pursues and kills the Trojans. On the other side of the Lesha the entrance to the underworld was depicted, to the kingdom of darkness with Odysseus on the shore of the Acheron, Tartarus with his terrible torments and Elisius with the shadows of the blessed. In the first of these paintings more than 100 figures were drawn, in the other more than 80: for each figure, ancient custom, the name was also attributed". In addition, Polygnotus' father Aglaophon and the latter's grandson of the same name were known as painters. The latter was mainly credited with two paintings, one of which depicted Alcibiades as a winner at the games. Wed Cic. Brut. 18. Cic. de or. 3,7. Quint. 12, 10. In general, housing complemented architecture; her works served to decorate both private buildings and galleries and temples. While plastic arts quickly advanced in their development, painting developed slowly and reached the height of perfection soon after the Peloponnesian War, that is, only when plastic art, after its highest prosperity, began to decline somewhat. Contemporaries and followers of Polygnotus were: Mykon from Aegina, his remarkable paintings were: "Antinoe", "Argonauts", "Asterope", "Pelius", "Theseus", "Acast" etc.; he painted partly and ??????? in Athens, where he depicted the Battle of the Amazons and the Battle of Marathon, and he was especially successful in depicting horses; his son; further Onatus of Aegina and Dionysius of Colophon; independently then acted as a decorative painter Agafarch ( cm. Agatharchus, Agatharchus), who also satisfied the requirements of luxury, which had already begun to penetrate the private life of the Greeks; but even more outstanding in this regard is the above-mentioned Apollodorus, called the skiagraph, because in addition to the invention of the brush, art in the distribution of light and shadow was also attributed to him. His primus species exprimere instituit, Pliny says about him (35, 9, 36), primusque gloriam penicillo iure contulit; neque ante eum tabula ullius ostenditur, quae teneat oculos. Following in his footsteps was his disciple Zeuxis from Heraclea in Magna Graecia, who lived c. 397, although, however, he belonged to a different school, namely the Ionian, prone to tenderness and pomp, as opposed to the Attic school; he was especially good at depicting the female body. Proof of this is what he wrote at the request of the Crotonians. "Elena"(was placed in the famous temple of Hera Lacinia), representing perfect beauty in the form of an earthly woman; in the same way he embodied the highest idea of chaste modesty in the image of Penelope. Zeuxis does not have a variety of epic compositions, like Polygnotus’s, just as expressions of various mental states are not visible in his paintings; his main attention was paid to the picturesqueness, the external side of the object, to the illusion; Compared to later times, he lacked an artistic and varied juxtaposition of colors. About his competition with Parrhasius ( cm. Parrhasius). The latter and Timanthos of Sicyon were his contemporaries; about the paintings of the latter, between which was issued "Sacrifice of Iphigenia", where he depicted Agamemnon with his face covered to express great sadness, already in antiquity the opinion was expressed that they make the viewer guess more than how much is actually expressed in them; the viewer's imagination complements the unsaid, not only because these paintings depicted something ideal, but also because they contain a wealth of motives. The main merit of the Sicyon school, on the contrary, was the strictly scientific execution of the drawing and its most thorough clarity. The founder of this school was Eupompus of Sicyon, and its main representative was Pamphilus, who was the first to methodically study art and apply his theoretical and geometric knowledge to drawings; His student Melanphius was most outstanding in his skillful arrangement and composition of paintings and contributed greatly to the improvement of color. He is ranked, by the way, among those 4 painters (Apelles, Echion, Nicomachus) who used only 4 colors. During the time of Alexander the Great, Jeanne reached the highest degree of attractiveness and charm, thanks mainly to Apelles, a native of the island of Kos, a student of Pamphilus (356-308). He combined the advantages of both schools, while trying to penetrate even deeper into true meaning J. and breathe into his works the richness and diversity of life; he combined loyalty to nature with creative power, which earned him a special favor from Alexander; the latter especially praised his paintings for their grace, ?????; in the foreground he had the perfection of form, and not the ideality of content. In technique, both in relation to the drawing itself and in relation to the choice of colors for spectacular scenes, he was a master of his craft. In the temple of Artemis of Ephesus he painted an image of Alexander throwing the feathers of Zeus, and the raised hand and lightning that appeared on the surface aroused the greatest surprise. He also painted Alexander’s generals in various positions, sometimes separately, sometimes in groups. To his exemplary works ideal content belonged to "Artemis", surrounded by a choir of young women making sacrifices, and Aphrodite Anadyomene emerging from the sea; this last picture, according to the verdict of all the ancients, was considered a model of grace; however, the lower part of this picture remained unfinished, death kidnapped Apelles at work, and none of the subsequent artists dared to take on the task of finishing it. Initially, it was in the temple of Aphrodite on the island of Cos, from where Augustus transferred it to Rome and ordered it to be placed in the temple of Caesar, who was numbered among the gods. More to the Sicyon school belonged: Euphranor, whose glory lay in the subtlety of his depiction of gods and heroes; Echion, from whose works the painting of the newlywed is remarkable (a free imitation of which is, perhaps, the Aldobrandian wedding in the Vatican Museum in Rome) and Pausius of Sikyon, who was the first, they say, to decorate the ceilings in the rooms, for the most part figures of boys, flowers and arabesques, and he was mainly famous for his flower paintings ( Plin. 35, 40 mentions the beautiful Glyceria, skilled in weaving wreaths, whose image he presented to the competition); he was famous for bringing the encaustic method to a high degree of development. At this time, i.e. approx. 370-330, the Theban Aristides also flourished, remarkable mainly for his art of depicting battles and conquests of cities and his masterful ability to give life and expressiveness to his paintings, although his distribution of colors was not particularly successful. His painting depicting the battle of the Macedonians with the Persians contained up to 100 figures; The sad scene during the destruction of the city was considered his masterful work, and the main group depicting a dying mother and a baby catching her breast attracted special attention; but she pushes him away for fear that he might suck blood instead of milk. Around this time, Protogenes from the city of Kavna in Caria achieved even greater fame, who until the age of 50 supported his existence with the most ordinary works; but the famous Apelles recognized this and, appreciating his art, bought some paintings from him for a significant sum of money, showing these fellow citizens their inability to appreciate the works of Protogenes and at the same time trying to arouse in them the suspicion that he wanted to pass them off as his own. This helped the poor man make a name for himself among his fellow citizens. Above his best painting, where he depicted Ialisa ( cm. Ialis) a hunter with a dog panting on the side, he worked for 7 or even 11 years. When Demetrius Poliorcetes was besieging Rhodes, he could not decide to attack from the side where he knew this painting was located, and because of this he did not win. He sent guards to guard the artist, whose workshop was in the most dangerous place outside the city walls, and even personally visited him. During the time of Pliny, this painting was in Rome, in the temple of the world, but already during the time of Plutarch it was destroyed by fire. His picture "The Resting Satyr", which he placed on one column, was written by him during the siege, when weapons thundered all around, and was also considered an exemplary work. The main merit of Protogen, as well as Apelles, was not so much in the richness of thought or poetic content, but in the charming artistic execution, and the illusion was brought to the highest degree; but with Apelles this was a consequence of his natural talent, and with Protogenes this was achieved by his greatest patience and remarkable diligence. While everyone was surprised at his diligence and perseverance in his works, in the works of his contemporary, Nicomachus, a native of the city of Thebes, who lived at the end of the 4th century. BC, the son and student of Aristodemus, were most amazed at the speed of execution combined with remarkable artistry. They were written - "The Rape of Proserpina", in the Capitol, in the Temple of Minerva; "Goddess of Victory", riding a four-wheeler, and "Skilla" in the temple of the goddess of peace. Further remarkable are: Theon from the island of Samos, who aroused surprise with the liveliness of his imagination and lived during the time of the Macedonian kings Philip and Alexander; he owns: "Mad Orestes" and kifared "Thamiris", Nicias, originally from Athens (painted animals and battles encaustic; many of his paintings were in Rome; one of the best was "Kingdom of Shadows According to Homer"; they praised the color, position and roundness of figures in his paintings, especially female ones), Antiphilus ( "The Boy Stoking the Fire", "Workshop for woolen work") and Ctesilochus (caricatured the birth of Dionysus from the thigh of Zeus). In all likelihood, Aetion (??????) with his famous painting belongs to the Alexandrian time - "The Marriage of Alexander and Roxana" (Cic. Brut. 18, where some, however, read Echion; Lucian de Merc. cond. 42.imagg. 7). From then on, art begins to decline and is no longer distinguished by grace and ingenuity, but only by care in decoration. Thus, Peyraijk conveyed scenes from everyday life with a brush, depicted with remarkable skill the workshops of shoemakers, barbers, kitchens, markets, etc., which was especially appreciated by the Romans, who respected not so much the intricacy of the composition as the correctness and clarity of the drawing; Thus, he became the best master of real genre painting, the so-called riparography. As for the Romans, we should mainly point out their lack of understanding of works of art; Even the capture of Corinth could not produce a beneficial revolution in art for a long time. Very often there were examples when soldiers and generals not only did not respect, but even destroyed the precious works of J. Mummius did not understand, for example, how Attalus of Pergamon could value so dearly the painting of Aristides depicting Bacchus; Believing that some secret power was hidden in her, he took her with him and placed her in the temple of Ceres. But soon the Romans and in this case have clearly demonstrated their greedy system of colossal accumulation of other people's treasures; they began to decorate their homes, dining rooms, dachas, etc. with precious paintings. That is why, in general, one can only point to individual names of artists, such as, for example, Timomakh from Byzantium, famous for his ability to touchingly depict curbed passions, as he proved in his painting "Furious Ajax", which Caesar ordered to be installed in Rome; Timomachus lived in the last century BC. During the time of Augustus, Ludius was famous. Meanwhile, during the reign of the emperors, many Greek painters moved to Rome, whose talent and taste can be understood by the elegant decorations in the famous baths of Titus. Mosaics also developed in a similar way for purposes of luxury; point primarily to Coca of Pergamon, who painted an image of a pool with pigeons on the floor of one room, but the best work of mosaic was considered to be the image of a whole "Iliad" on the floors of the magnificent ship of King Hieron II of Syracuse. Our information about the sources and objects of ancient history is extremely scarce. The newly discovered remains of paintings near Athens on Greek tombstones are not particularly valuable, but numerous drawings on Greek clay vessels already indicate some craftsmanship, and mural paintings found in Herculaneum and Pompeii do not belong to the time of the prosperity of this art and can be considered as more or less light indoor decorations. In general, even in painting, the ancients were distinguished by the choice of beautiful figures, the simplicity of scenes and compositions, and the correctness of drawing, but in the application of the laws of perspective in paintings of large sizes, in the shadows resulting from a certain combination and fusion of colors, and mainly in poetic depth, they were far inferior the latest art. Wed art history Schnaase, Kugler´a, L?bke and others; especially Brunn, Geschichte der. griech. K?nstler, II, p. 3-316 and W?rmann, die Malerei des Alterhums (in Woltmann´a Gesch. der Malerei, vol.?, 1879, p. 32-140).
Great definition
Incomplete definition ↓
