Humanity has gone through many eras. Scary, amazing and even mysterious. But of the entire series of centuries, only one was called the Golden Age, the time of the titans in terms of the power of thought, passion and spirit, in versatility and learning. The influence of the Renaissance on minds was truly revolutionary and all-pervasive. It has, to one degree or another, affected all countries of Western, Central and even partly Eastern Europe. His influence on minds was truly revolutionary. He brought such devastating changes that the Middle Ages, with its idea of the weakness and insignificance of man, the baseness of his nature and feelings, completely lost its position in philosophy and culture. “This was the greatest progressive revolution experienced up to that time,” wrote Friedrich Engels. And to this day, historians, assessing his influence, pay tribute to the country where the Renaissance was born, from where its ideas spread throughout the world, namely Italy. It was there that the torch was lit, which then illuminated new way to all humanity.
Renaissance is an era in cultural and ideological development a number of countries in Western and Central Europe. Basic distinctive features Renaissance culture: secular character, humanistic worldview, appeal to antiquity cultural heritage, a kind of “revival” of his influence on culture (hence the name of the entire period). At the same time, the culture of the Renaissance is a transition from the Middle Ages to modern times. That is why the old and the new are so closely intertwined in it. The boundaries of this period are different in different countries. So, in Italy the Renaissance is called the 14th - 16th centuries, and in others European countries- 15th - 16th centuries. It is usually customary to single out the Italian Pre-Renaissance (the turn of the 13th -14th centuries), Early Renaissance(15th century), High (late 15th - first quarter of the 16th century) and Late Renaissance(16th century).
The features of Renaissance culture were most clearly manifested in architecture and fine arts Italy. The ascetic ideals and dogmatic conventions of the Middle Ages were replaced by the desire for a realistic knowledge of man and the world, faith in the creative possibilities and power of the mind.
With all the infinity of hobbies, tastes and scientific priorities, the Renaissance (13-14 centuries) - in general for Europeans - is one of the most captivating periods in the history of world art, the “antiquity” of the New Age, an unattainable level of artistic perfection, the ideal of harmony and beauty.
“People revive an era” - this principle is most suitable precisely for the Renaissance, which created the concept of a god-equal “universal” person and put forward in art personalities who became the personification of entire eras of national culture.
This era showed the world outstanding masters: Michelangelo, Raphael, Leonardo da Vinci and many others. Today we will get acquainted with the creativity of the most interesting and famous artists and we will try to answer the question “Can these creators be considered titans of the Renaissance?”
When writing the abstract I used educational literature, as well as scientific articles in journals on the issue under study.
01/11/2017 at 23:25
The history of the origin of mechanical watches clearly demonstrates the beginning of the development of complex technical devices. When the clock was invented, it remained a major technical invention for several centuries. And to this day, historians cannot agree on who actually was the first to invent mechanical watches, based on historical facts.
History of watches
Even before the revolutionary discovery - the development of mechanical watches, the first and simplest device for measuring time was a sundial. Already more than 3.5 thousand years ago, based on the correlation of the movement of the Sun and the length and position of the shadow of objects, sundials were the most widely used device for determining time. Also, later references to water clocks appeared in history, with the help of which they tried to cover the shortcomings and errors of the solar invention.
A little later in history, references to fire clocks or candle clocks appeared. This method of measurement consists of thin candles, the length of which reached up to a meter, with a time scale applied along the entire length. Sometimes, in addition to the sides of the candle, metal rods were attached, and when the wax burned out, the side fasteners, falling down, made characteristic blows on the metal bowl of the candlestick - indicating a sound signal for a certain period of time. In addition, candles helped not only tell the time, but also helped illuminate rooms at night.
The next, not unimportant invention before mechanical instruments, is the hourglass, which made it possible to measure only short periods of time, no more than half an hour. But, like the fire instrument, the hourglass could not achieve the accuracy of the sunglass.
Step by step, with each instrument, people developed a clearer idea of time, and the search for a perfect way to measure it continued continuously. The invention of the first wheel clock became a uniquely new, revolutionary device, and from the moment of its inception the era of chronometry began.
Creation of the first mechanical watch
This is a clock with which time is measured by the mechanical oscillations of a pendulum or balance-spiral system. Unfortunately, the exact date and names of the masters who invented the first mechanical watch in history remain unknown. And all that remains is to contact historical facts, indicating the stages of creation of a revolutionary device.
Historians have determined that mechanical watches began to be used in Europe at the turn of the 13th - 14th centuries.
The tower wheel clock should be called the first representative of the mechanical generation of time measurement. The essence of the work was simple - the single-drive mechanism consisted of several parts: a smooth wooden axis and a stone, which was tied with a rope to the shaft, thus operating the function of a weight. Under the influence of the gravity of the stone, the rope gradually unwound and contributed to the rotation of the axis, determining the passage of time. The main difficulty of such a mechanism was the colossal weight, as well as the bulkiness of the elements (the height of the tower was at least 10 meters, and the weight of the weight reached 200 kg), which entailed consequences in the form of large errors in time indicators. As a result, in the Middle Ages they came to the conclusion that the operation of the clock should depend not only on the single movement of the weight.
The mechanism was later supplemented with several more components that were able to control the movement - the “Bilyanets” regulator (represented a metal base located parallel to the surface of the ratchet wheel) and the trigger distributor (a complex component in the mechanism with the help of which the interaction of the resulatator and the transmission mechanism is carried out). But, despite all further innovations, the tower mechanism continued to require continuous monitoring, while remaining the most accurate time measuring device, even without looking at all its shortcomings and large errors.
Who invented mechanical watches
Ultimately, over time, the mechanisms of the tower clock turned into a complex structure with many automatically moving elements, a varied striking system, with hands and decorative decorations. From that moment on, the watch became not only a practical invention, but also an object of admiration - an invention of technology and art at the same time! It is certainly worth highlighting some of them.
Of the early mechanisms, such as the tower clock in Westminster Abbey in England (1288), in the Canterbury Temple (1292), in Florence (1300), unfortunately, not a single one managed to preserve the names of their creators, remaining unknown .
In 1402, the Prague Tower Clock was built, equipped with automatically moving figures, which during each chime displayed a certain set of movements, personifying history. The most ancient part of Orloy - a mechanical clock and an astronomical dial, was reconstructed in 1410. Each component was produced by watchmaker Mikulas from Kadány according to the design of astronomer and mathematician Jan Schindel.
For example, watchmaker Giunello Turriano needed 1,800 wheels to make a tower clock that showed the daily movement of Saturn, the annual movement of the Sun, the movement of the Moon, as well as the direction of all the planets in accordance with the Ptolemaic system of the universe, and the passage of time during the day.
All of the above watches were invented relatively independently of each other and had a high time accuracy.
The first mention of the invention of a clock with a spring motor approximately arose in the second half of the 15th century. It was thanks to this invention that the next step was the discovery of smaller variations of watches.
The first pocket watch
The next step in revolutionary devices was the first pocket watch. New development appeared approximately in 1510 thanks to a mechanic from the German city of Nuremberg - Peter Henlein. Main feature The mainspring became the device. The model showed the time with just one hand, showing the approximate period of time. The case was made of gilded brass in the shape of an oval, resulting in the name "Nuremberg Egg". In the future, watchmakers sought to repeat and improve according to the example and likeness of the first ones.
Who invented the first modern mechanical watch?
If we talk about modern watches, in 1657, the Dutch inventor Christiaan Huygens first used a pendulum as a clock regulator, and thereby managed to significantly reduce the error of indications in his invention. In the first Huygens clock, the daily error did not exceed 10 seconds (for comparison, earlier the error ranged from 15 to 60 minutes). The watchmaker was able to offer a solution - new regulators for both weight and spring watches. Now, from this moment on, the mechanisms have become much more advanced.
It should be noted that during all periods of the search for an ideal solution, they remained an indispensable subject of delight, surprise and admiration. Each new invention amazed with its beauty, labor-intensive work and painstaking discoveries to improve the mechanism. And even today, watchmakers never cease to delight us with new solutions in the production of mechanical models, emphasizing the uniqueness and precision of each of their devices.
October 26, 2016 in the Blue Bedroom Winter Palace exhibition opens Horology. Watches of the 16th - 17th centuries in the Hermitage collection”, which presents unique first monuments of watchmaking art created by European masters.
France, Paris
Mid-17th century
Square watch on a chain, in a case
France, Paris
Mid-17th century
Watchmaker Louis Baronneau (Louis)
Gold, silver, glass, steel, copper alloys, rubies, spinel, garnet, enamel, leather, silk; embossing, engraving, gilding, bluing, painting, inlay
Desk clock in the form of a globe
Germany
Beginning of the 17th century
Unknown master
Germany, Nuremberg
Third quarter of the 16th century.
Equatorial universal equinoctial sundial
Second half of the 1710s - early 1720s.
Russia, St. Petersburg
Masters of "Turning" Peter I, with the participation of Peter I
Wood, ivory, steel, copper, paper, glass; turning
Universal horizontal solar clock
1556
Germany, Augsburg
Master Klieber
Copper alloys; engraving, gilding, silvering
Table clock in the form of a turret
Mid-17th century
Poland, Gdansk
Watchmaker Paulus Horn (Horn, Paulus)
Brass, copper, silver, iron; casting, stamping, embossing, engraving
Desk clock with allegorical images
Third quarter of the 16th century.
Germany, Nuremberg
Master Hans Gruber (Gruber, Hans)
Copper, steel, glass; casting, embossing, engraving, gilding
Cylindrical table clock
XVI century
France
Master Mathieu Bachelet (Bachelet, Matieu)
Copper, metal alloys; casting, embossing, engraving, gilding
Mid-17th century
France, Paris
Clock with grisaille patterns
Mid-17th century
France, Paris
Watchmaker Pierre de Beaufre (de Baufre, Pierre)
Copper, gold, silver, steel, diamonds, enamel; embossing, gilding, bluing, painting
The exhibition includes about a hundred items - table, wall, and pocket mechanical watches, as well as their predecessors - solar, lunar and celestial instruments for measuring time.
Clock Making - Area applied arts, which combined several types of activities: manufacturing the mechanism - the “heart” of the watch and the corresponding case-case. IN early period watches were especially highly valued; they were made from rare, expensive materials and were intended, first of all, for top officials of the state, influential people and the nobility. In Russia, watches began to be used from XVI century, later obsolete specimens became collectibles. At the exhibition you can see products of various shapes, technical and artistic solutions, purchased by Peter I, Elizaveta Petrovna, Catherine II, as well as representatives of the St. Petersburg nobility.
The appearance of the first mechanical watches was preceded by other time measuring instruments: water, sand, solar, star clock. The exhibition includes: the oldest sundial in Russia, made by the Augsburg master Klieber (1556); a most complex astronomical instrument created in 1584 by other Augsburg masters Georg Roll and Johann Reinhold - an astronomical clock, with sidereal and terrestrial globes - a unique system of the world in the view of their era. A special place is occupied by the universal equatorial sundial, made by the masters of Peter I’s “Turner”.
The first mechanical portable clocks were table clocks; in the Hermitage they are represented mainly by the works of masters from Germany in the middle and second centuries. half XVI century. The earliest examples date back to the first third of the 16th century. Only a few names of the first watchmakers have survived to this day. Their rare works are shown at the exhibition - a clock by German watchmakers Hans Grüber with allegorical engraved scenes and a clock with a crucifixion scene by Hans Lucas Thorn. The French school is represented by a unique example of the Renaissance - a cylindrical clock made by Mathieu Bachelet.
The architectural forms of early watch cases corresponded to the prevailing artistic style, and decorative elements changed and varied. To enhance the decorative effect, the body was decorated with columns in the corners and a base at the base. At the top of the clock there was a striking bell, topped with chased figures, flowerpots, and balusters. In the center there was usually a dial, sometimes two or three. The main surface of the products of this time was covered with a variety of engraved and embossed compositions, dating back to the engravings of that period. The masters repeated the plot composition almost completely, sometimes using individual figures or fragments of ornaments. The most common were images of allegorical figures of Astrology, Time, Truth, Mercy. The decor of the watch included engraved inscriptions, for example: Fugitirreharabiletempus (“Irreversible time is running”), Tempusfugit (“Time is running”), Fugitaetasutumbra (“Life is running like a shadow”) and others. Reflections on changes in nature beyond human control, on the constant movement of the sun and planets, and the progress of science in the study of the surrounding world are reflected in the form of a clock made in the form of a globe with the signs of the zodiac constellations or a ball with a dial along the equator.
Polygonal table clocks were widespread, side walls in which plates of transparent rock crystal or glass were mounted, allowing one to observe the movement of wheels, springs, gears and other parts of the mechanism.
Researchers believe that the rounding of the corners of table clocks became the basis for the first miniature clocks made in the form of tambourines. By 1570 - 1580 they received characteristic appearance: the mechanism was placed in a case of two slotted doors with chased compositions in the center. Like most “tambourines” preserved in museum collections, the Hermitage items were made by German craftsmen.
The first pocket watches are presented at the exhibition in all their variety of forms: in the form of a book, an icon, a flower bud, a skull, a cross. The works of B. Magnin, Isidore Champion, Jacques Serman, made in the shape of a cross, could belong to clergy. More often, miniature watches were made in the shape of a circle, oval, octagon, or square. Square clocks were especially widespread in the 17th century, examples of which are the works of masters Louis Baronneau and Johann Sigmund Schlöer.
After Christiaan Huygens introduced a pendulum into the mechanism in 1657, and in 1674 a clock was made based on his design, in which the role of the pendulum was played by the balance, the masters achieved high, almost modern accuracy of the clock. Since then, the shapes of the mechanisms and cases of portable watches could vary more freely; geometric ones coexisted with figured ones. Clocks whose mechanisms were inserted into a bird figurine became widespread, as in the products of Caspar Kamel (Camila) from Strasbourg and Abel Senebier from Geneva.
The most popular shape of pocket watches was the circle; from the second half of the 17th century it became dominant. The materials of round cases are varied: gold, silver, carved from stone, with rock crystal lids, decorated with precious stones and enamel paintings. The art of decoration is clearly represented in the watches of the German master Johann Oldenburg, the outstanding French watchmaker Nicolas Lemendre and a whole galaxy of masters from European centers watchmaking. Throughout the 17th century characteristic features Baroque style manifested itself in the use of lush floral patterns and bright color accents. In the last quarter of the 17th century, a new type of enamel decoration became widespread in France and Switzerland: the internal, external, side surfaces of cases and even the dial were decorated with compositions of painted enamel. Among them are magnificent watch cases with paintings made by the brothers Jean-Pierre and Ami Huo and their followers based on the original paintings of their contemporaries.
The exhibition was prepared by the Department of Western European Applied Art of the State Hermitage.
A scientific illustrated catalog “Horology. Art” has been prepared for the exhibition. Clocks from the 16th – 17th centuries in the Hermitage collection.” The scientific editor of the catalog is O. G. Kostyuk, the authors of the introductory articles are L. D. Raigorodsky, O. G. Kostyuk. The authors of the catalog descriptions are A. G. Geiko, O. G. Kostyuk, O. V. Lokalova, G. B. Yastrebinsky.
Dear participant!
When completing tasks, you have to do certain work, which is best organized like this:
- read the assignment carefully and look at the sources you suggested;
- If you are not sure of the correct answer, do not worry - the assignment materials often contain important details, based on which you can logically come to the correct answer;
- V analytical tasks The ability to reason, observe, draw conclusions and construct a coherent text of reasoning is assessed.
For each correct answer you can receive a certain number of points determined by the jury, but not higher than the specified maximum score.
The sum of points scored for all solved questions is the result of your work.
The maximum number of points is 80.
The tasks are considered completed if you submit them to the jury on time.
We wish you success!
Dear participants!
The Olympiad tasks are designed in such a way that all questions relate to one range of topics. Gradually, the approach to the chosen topic will deepen, and the image you recreate in the course of completing tasks will become more multifaceted and subtle. Therefore, in working on the tasks of each part of the Olympiad, the material from the remaining tasks can help you. If you do not have enough space when completing assignments, you can ask for additional sheets from the organizer.
We wish you good luck!
Task 1
Here are several images of medieval town halls, fortresses and bell towers, in which clocks were built.
The clock tower became both the spatial and temporal axis of a square, city or monastery - the center of public space. And the time that such a clock measured is the life time of the city, community, brotherhood - collective time.
Look at the examples of medieval buildings given in the task that have built-in clocks and try to determine in which country each of them is located (if you know the city, you can indicate the name of the city).
Figure A, Russia (Veliky Novgorod)
Figure B, Italy (Trento)
Figure B, Armenia, Christian Caucasus (Haghartsin)
Figure D, Switzerland (Bern)
Figure D, Czech Republic (Prague)
One point for correctly identified geographical location
Total for task 1 – maximum 5 points.
Task 2
A) Here are watches created by European masters in different eras.
Determine what style each product is made in and write the name of the style under the image.
One point for correctly identified style name
Total for task 2a - maximum 4 points
B) Place the image numbers in chronological order from earlier to later style.
Chronological order: 2, 4, 1, 3
One point for the correct place in the chronological series
Total for task 2b - maximum 4 points
IN) Write a short text-discussion about the characters who are called upon to be “time keepers” in each of the things. Who are they, what mythological heroes they remind you how the watches themselves are treated and what kind of space is created around them, how the behavior of sculptural characters and their attitude to time changes from style to style. What idea of time does the viewer develop?
Criteria for assessing reasoning:
In total, for task 2c - a maximum of 8 points.
Total for task 2 – maximum 16 points.
Task 3
Here are five still lifes created in different eras.
1. Peter Klas. "Still Life with Ham, Bread, Salt Shaker and Remer" (1646)
Look at two 17th-century still lifes displayed among the reproductions. They were written by contemporaries who lived in very different countries in terms of cultural climate and social structure.
Antonio Pereda lived in monarchical, conservative and religious Spain, Peter Klass lived in bourgeois, Protestant Holland.
Write a short coherent text about what meanings the watches in each still life are given, what role they play in the picture. How does the image of a watch relate to the specifics of the still life genre? Think about the name this genre received in French (nature morte - “dead nature”) or German (Stilleben - “ quiet life") languages?
Pay attention to what objects the watch is presented next to, how it interacts with them, and what compositional and coloristic role it plays.
Now turn to the three 20th century paintings presented in the assignment. Based on these examples, formulate in a few sentences how the image of watches, and, accordingly, the image of time, changed in the 20th century (compared to the 17th century)?
Criteria for assessing reasoning:
Total for task 3 – maximum 14 points.
Task 4 "Cinderella"
In 1944, composer Sergei Sergeevich Prokofiev composed the ballet Cinderella. The following year the ballet was staged in Bolshoi Theater in Moscow.
Throughout the twentieth century, various choreographers and directors turned to this score, coming up with their own versions fairy tale story and each time mastering Prokofiev’s music in a new way.
In this task you will watch fragments of two productions from the 21st century. This ballet performances"Cinderella" 2002 by choreographer Alexei Ratmansky ( Mariinsky Theater) and “Cinderella” 2006 by choreographer Yuri Posokhov (Bolshoi Theater).
Both fragments are the finale of the ball scene and the striking of the clock. This is the most dramatic and intense episode in the musical fabric of the ballet and in the action of the performance.
Watch fragments from both ballets, study photographs from the performances and, based on your observations and the following questions, write a short coherent argument (170-190 words 1 ) on the topic “The image of time in the ball scene of the ballet “Cinderella” by S. Prokofiev.”
- Remember fairy tale plot Charles Perrault. How does the striking of the clock affect the characters in the story, its space and time?
- Listen carefully to the music of this fragment of the ballet. By what means does the composer build the theme of the clock? Does this passage show an image of time? How is the music emotionally charged?
- What does the clock look like scenographically on stage? Which symbolic meanings the performance artists invested in such a solution for the stage objects.
- Pay attention to the characters taking part in this episode in each of the performances. In addition to the main characters - the Prince and Cinderella, the courtiers at the ball, the Stepmother and sisters - there are other characters on the stage. In the production by Alexei Ratmansky, this is the Fairy - an old beggar woman and four characters personifying the seasons; and in the play by Yuri Posokhov it is the Storyteller and four ravens (his constant companions). How do these characters influence the theme of time in each episode?
- What sets the clock in motion? How does space change? How do the mise-en-scène and the characters’ movements change? Does the world transform on stage?
Criteria for assessing written reasoning
A. Interpretation and understanding
The work demonstrates the participant's ability to consistently and reasonably:
- compare different texts;
- see deep meanings;
- make subtle observations to identify them;
- involve a wide range of associations to identify meanings.
Rating scale: 0–9–17–25.
In total, according to criterion A, a maximum of 25 points.
B. Creating text
The work includes:
- constant reliance on the work being analyzed (quotes, descriptions of details, examples, etc.);
- compositional harmony, logical narrative;
- stylistic homogeneity
Rating scale: 0–5–10–15.
In total, according to criterion B, a maximum of 15 points.
C. Literacy
There are no language, speech or grammatical errors in the work.
Rating scale: 0–2–3–5.
In total, according to criterion C, a maximum of 5 points.
Total for task 4 – 45 points.
The maximum score for the work is 80 points.
Explanation of the rating scale
In order to reduce subjectivity when evaluating work, it is proposed to focus on the rating scale that is attached to each criterion. It corresponds to the four-point system familiar to Russian teachers: the first mark is a conditional two, the second is a conditional three, the third is a conditional four, the fourth is a conditional five. Points between grades can also be assigned - they correspond to the conditional pluses and minuses in the traditional school system.
The grade for the work is given first as a sequence of grades for each criterion (the student must see how many points he scored for each criterion), and then as a total score. This will allow you to focus on discussing the real pros and cons of the work at the stage of showing the work and appealing.
One of the first inventions of mankind was the invention of the clock. However, the invention of mechanical clocks showing the current time (regardless of cloudy weather, twilight or night time (sunny), the amount of water or sand (water or sand), the amount of oil in a bowl or wax (fire) ... in 1337 Paris Cathedral Notre Dame de Paris lit a giant candle-column, which was used to measure a whole year of life), which was the most important invention of mankind.
Researchers studying the history of the invention and the time of the appearance of the first mechanical watches have not come to a common opinion about when the first time-keeping mechanisms appeared. Some give the palm in the invention of mechanical watches to a certain monk from the city of Verona. The inventor's name was Pacificus. Other researchers believe that this inventor was a monk named Herbert, who lived in a monastery in the Spanish city of Sala-Manca in the 10th century. For his scientific research, he was accused of witchcraft and expelled from Spain. This, however, did not prevent him from later becoming pope, Sylvester II. (His papacy lasted from 999 to 1003.) It is reliably known that in 996 Herbert designed and built a weight tower clock for Magdeburg. We can conclude that mechanical watches appeared almost simultaneously and independently of each other in different countries - the development of human technical thought led to this.
In the first watch movements, six main components could be distinguished:
. Engine;
. Gear transmission mechanism; (the period of rotation of wheels in a gear train depends on the ratio of the diameters of the wheels included in it or, what is the same, the ratio of the number of teeth. By selecting wheels with different numbers of teeth, it was easy to select the ratio of the number of teeth on the wheels in mesh, so that one of them makes a revolution in exactly 12 hours. If you “plant” an arrow on the axis of this wheel, then it will also make a revolution in 12 hours. It was also possible to select wheels with such a ratio of the number of teeth that one of them could. make its revolution in one hour or in one minute. Accordingly, it was possible to connect the minute or second hand to their axes. But such an improvement would be made only in the 18th century. Until then, the clock had only one hand - the hour hand.
. Bilyanets (bilyanets or, in Russian, rocker) is an oscillatory system, a prototype of balance, which does not have its own period of oscillation; it was used in stationary and portable watches until the 19th century. Specialists call the device that ensures the uniform movement of the gears of a clock mechanism BILYANETS;
. Trigger distributor;
. Pointer mechanism;
. Hand translation mechanism.
The engine of the first mechanical watch was driven by the potential kinetic energy of the load due to the influence of the earth's gravitational force on it. A load - a stone or later a weight - was attached to a smooth shaft on a rope. Initially the shaft was made of wood. Later it was replaced by a shaft made of metal. The force of gravity caused the weight to fall, the rope or chain to unwind, and in turn caused the shaft to rotate. The power reserve was determined by the length of the cable: the longer the cable, the longer the watch's power reserve. The clock mechanism should have been located perhaps higher. This was a problem for such a mechanism - the load needed to “fall” somewhere. To satisfy the condition, a structure was built, as a rule, in the form of a tower (This is where the first mechanical clock got its name - tower). The height of the tower had to be at least 10 meters, and the weight of the load sometimes reached 200 kilograms. The shaft was connected to the ratchet wheel through intermediate gears. The latter, in turn, set the arrow in motion. The first mechanical clocks had one hand (like “primitive” sundials, in which the gnomon, a single pole, indicated the current time of day). And the direction of movement of the hand of the first mechanical clock was not chosen by chance, but was determined by the direction of movement of the shadow cast by the gnomon. The number of time indexes (divisions on the dial) was also inherited from the sundial.
The very first mechanical watches with an anchor mechanism were made during the Tang Dynasty (June 18, 618 - June 4, 907) in China in 725 AD by masters Yixing and Liang Lingzan.
From China, the secret of the clock mechanism came to the Arabs. And only from them appeared in Europe. 
The prototype of the first mechanical watch was the Atnikitera mechanism, discovered by the Greek diver Lycopanthis near the island of Antikythera in the Aegean Sea, at a depth of 43 to 62 meters on a sunken ancient Roman ship.
This event took place on April 4, 1900. The Antikythera mechanism had 37 bronze gears housed in a wooden case. The case housed several dials with arrows.
The Antikythera mechanism was used to calculate the movement of celestial bodies. The dial on the front wall served to display the signs of the zodiac and the days of the year.
Two dials on the back of the case were used to simulate the position of the Sun and Moon relative to the fixed stars.
The first tower clocks in Europe appeared in the 14th century. It is interesting that the English word clock itself, the Latin word - clocca and a number of similar words in other European languages, originally meant not “clock”, but “bell” (very similar to the sound in Russian: bell - clocca - clock). The explanation is trivial - the first tower clock had neither a dial nor hands. They did not show the time at all, but produced signals by ringing a bell. The first such clocks were located on monastery towers, where there was a need to inform the monks about the time for work or prayer.
Visual evidence of the existence in the 14th century of a tradition coming from monastery clocks is the tower clock in England and France - with striking, but without a dial. The first mechanical watch with a dial and a hand (one at the moment) appeared in Europe in the 15th century. And it was not the arrow that rotated in them, but the dial itself. The dial was traditionally divided into 6, 12 and 24 divisions. The only arrow was located vertically.
Tower clocks, which were invented and built in the 14th - 15th centuries, were also called astronomical. Such clocks were built in Norwich, Strasbourg, Paris, and Prague. The tower astronomical clock was the pride of the city.
The cathedral, located in the French city of Strasbourg, is one of the oldest in Europe. The tower clock appeared on it in 1354. The height of the clock reaches 12 meters, and the diameter of the annual calendar wheel is 3 meters. 
Every noon, instead of the standard ringing, the clock showed a whole performance: the guards came out to the crowing of a rooster and three wise men prayed before the Mother of God. The clock showed not only the time, but the current year.
They displayed the dates of the main church holidays in the coming year. An astrolabe was built in front of the clock, which showed the movements of the Moon, Sun and stars. At certain times, the solemn anthem was played on special gongs. The clock was subsequently reconstructed several times. So, after the Great French Revolution(1789 - 1794) a large globe appeared in front of them, showing the location of more than 5,000 stars of the Galaxy in the sky above the city.
Higher accuracy was acquired by astronomical clocks with the invention of a pendulum device that ensures the counting of equal periods of time. This invention was made in 1657 by Christian Huygens van Zeilichem (Dutch mechanic, physicist, astronomer, inventor 04/14/1629 - 07/08/1695).
History of watchmaking in Ancient Rus'.
….In the Novgorod Chronicle about the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380 you can find: “Blood was shed between the fighting and the 9th. If we do not know that the time in the chronicle is indicated according to the church account, then the essence of the issue would remain unknown to us. IN ancient Rus' daytime and nighttime were counted separately. And the countdown was made from sunrise to sunset (day hours) and from sunset to sunrise (night hours).
Traditionally, it was believed that watchmaking in Rus' was not held in high esteem. But the first tower clocks in Rus' appeared almost simultaneously with tower clocks in Europe. With a more careful study of archival documents, it became clear that even the chroniclers of Veliky Novgorod of the 11th century indicated not only the days, but also the hours of the most worthy and noteworthy events.
The first tower clock in Moscow was erected by the monk Lazar in 1404. The clock was built in the courtyard of Grand Duke Vasily, the son of Dmitry Donskoy, whose palace was located exactly in the same place where the Grand Kremlin Palace now stands. Then it was the second watch in Europe.
Lazar Serbin was born in Serbia from here and received this nickname. Lazarus came to Moscow from the “Holy Mountain”. This is Mount Athos, located in the southeastern part of the Greek island of Aion Oros in the Aegean Sea. The monastery near the mountain was founded back in 963.
How these clocks were constructed is not known for certain. In the “Facebook Chronicle of Ivan the Terrible” or “Tsar Book”, published in Moscow in the third quarter of the 16th century, there is a color miniature depicting the launch of the “clockmaker” (these clocks were also called “hour measurement”).
Monk Lazar tells Grand Duke Vasily I about the structure of his clock. 
Judging by the drawing, they had three weights, which indicates the complexity of the clock mechanism. It can be assumed that one weight drove the clock mechanism, another - the bell mechanism, and the third - the planetary mechanism. The planetary mechanism showed the phases of the moon.
There are no hands on the clock dial. Most likely, the dial itself was rotating. More likely “bukvoblat” because instead of numbers it had Old Slavonic letters: az-1, buki-2, vedi-3, verb-4, dobro-5 and further according to the alphabet of Cyril and Methodius. 
The watch caused genuine delight among the population and was considered a real curiosity. Vasily the First paid Lazar Serbin “half a ruble” for them. (at the exchange rate of the beginning of the 20th century, this amount would have been 20,000 gold rubles).
For decades, this tower clock was not only the only one in Moscow, but throughout Rus'. The installation of the first tower clock in Moscow was mentioned in chronicles as an event of great national importance.
….55.752544 degrees north latitude and 37.621425 degrees east longitude. Geographical coordinates of the location of the Spasskaya Tower of the Moscow Kremlin...
The most famous clocks of Rus' and Russia are the Kremlin chimes, a clock-chimes installed on the Spasskaya Tower of the Moscow Kremlin.
Courante (French) - courante (dance, first salon), from dancecourante - (literally) “running dance, from courir - to run< лат.сurrerre - бежать. Музыка этого танца использовалась в старинных настольных часах.
In 1585, clocks were already on three gates of the Moscow Kremlin towers. Spasskaya, Tainitskaya and Troitskaya.
In 1625, the English mechanic and watchmaker Christopher Galloway, together with the Russian blacksmiths and watchmakers who helped him Zhdan, his son Shumila Zhdanov and grandson Alexei Shumilov, installed a tower clock on Spasskaya. 13 bells were cast for them by foundry worker Kirill Samoilov. During a fire in 1626, the clock burned down; in 1668, the same Christopher Galloway restored it again. The clock “played music” and showed the time: day and night, indicated by Slavic letters and numbers. And the dial then was not a “dial”, but a “word indicator circle, a circle of recognition.” The role of the arrow was played by the image of the sun with a long ray, fixed vertically and motionlessly in the upper part of the circle. The disk itself rotated, divided into 17 equal parts. (This was the maximum day length in the summer).
IN different times The chimes played: the march of the Preobrazhensky Regiment, the melody of D.S. Bortnyansky “How Glorious is Our Lord in Zion”, the song “Oh, my dear Augustine”, “Internationale”, “You have fallen a victim”, the works of M.I. Glinka: “Patriotic song" and "Glory". Now the Russian anthem is being played to the music of A.V. Alexandrova.
Such a detailed acquaintance with the structure and operation of the clock mechanism of a tower clock makes it easier to understand the operation of the clock mechanism of a wall clock. The use of a weight (weight), and later a spring, as a motor driving the gears of a clock mechanism (photo of a balance spiral, photo of a balance pendulum), together with the invention and use of a device in a clock mechanism that ensures uniform movement of the gears of a clock mechanism, BILYANTS made it possible to reduce both the dimensions and weight of the watch. The use of a fusee in the design of the watch mechanism also greatly contributed to the reduction in the dimensions of the watch.
The engine, driven by the kinetic energy of the load due to the gravitational force, where the rotation of the gear wheel mechanism was almost uniform (the weight of the changing length of the rope or chain can be neglected) was replaced by a clock with a spring. But a spring motor has its own “nuance”. The steel spring, as it “unfolds,” transmits a “subsiding” force to the gear mechanism. It “weaken” and the torque changes. This drawback was eliminated by the use of a device in the design of the clock mechanism to preserve and maintain uniform spring force. This device is called a fusee (emphasis on the “e”).
The invention of the fusee was attributed to the Prague watchmaker Jacob Zech. Researchers date the first use of this device to the beginning of the 16th century (around 1525).
Until drawings were found in the archives of Leonardo da Vinci describing the same device, and their author was “a genius of all times and peoples.” The drawings are dated 1485. Historical justice has triumphed. The authorship of the invention was assigned to Leonardo di Ser Piero da Vinci.
LeonardodiserPierodaVinci (April 15, 1452 - May 5, 1519), painter, sculptor, architect, musician, scientist, writer, inventor. A striking example“universal man” (lat. homouniversalis).
The fusée is a truncated cone that is connected to the mainspring barrel using a special chain.
Among experts, the chain is known as the Gaal chain. On the side surface of the fusée, a groove is machined in the form of a conical helical spiral, into which the Gaal chain fits when the latter is wound around the fusée. The chain is attached to the cone at its lower part (at the point of greatest radius) and is wound around the cone from bottom to top. At the base of the cone there is a gear that transmits torque to the main wheel system of the watch. As the spring winds down, the fusee compensates for the drop in torque by increasing the gear ratio, thus increasing the evenness of the watch over the entire period of operation of the mechanism from one winding to the next. (photo 300px-Construction_fusei). After the invention of the free anchor movement by the English watchmaker Thomas Muidge in 1755, the need to use a fusee in the watch mechanism disappeared.
The introduction of these inventions contributed to the reduction in the size of watches. The clocks were able to “live” with people in their homes. This is how the room clock appeared.
FIRST ROOM CLOCK. ALLFALFA CLOCK.
The first clocks, indoor ones, which could be used indoors, began to appear in the 14th century in Britain. They were so huge and heavy that it never occurred to me to hang them on the wall. For this reason they stood on the floor - a grandfather clock. In their design and structural elements, they were not much different from large tower clocks. The wheel system with weights and bells was located in a housing made of iron or brass.
The so-called "alfalfa" (modern) appeared in English watchmakers around 1600. Initially, the cases of these watches were made of iron. Later, bronze or brass was used as a material for the manufacture of wall clock cases. The name “alfalfa” supposedly arose because of the shape of their body (they resembled old candle lanterns). According to another version, their name arose from the word “lacten”, which meant “brass”.
Both versions are quite elegant:
. From Latin lucerna - candle, lamp;
. Lactten - brass.
. Lucerne (German: Luzern)
Lucerne is a city in Switzerland on the shores of Lake Lucerne, at the foot of Mount Pilatus. The city was founded during the Roman Empire; some researchers place the date of its founding even earlier. The official year of foundation of the city is 1178.
During the religious wars in France in the second half of the 16th century, the Huguenots, fleeing massacre, were forced to emigrate to Switzerland. Among them were many talented craftsmen and watchmakers, among others.
Today, the Swiss watch industry ranks third among its own exporting industries. The watch industry in Switzerland is in a special place. (This variant of the origin of the name “alfalfa wall clock” has not yet been taken into account by anyone and has not been considered as a possible explanation for the origin of the definition “alfalfa”).
As for the first household or pocket watches in Rus', here, until the beginning of the 20th century, the first creaks were played by foreign watchmakers. The first watches were very expensive and looked more like a piece of jewelry. They began to be imported to Russia under Ivan III at the beginning of the 16th century. They were either ambassadorial gifts to the king and his court or expensive goods for the rich. At the beginning of the 17th century, the first wall clocks appeared in Rus'. English watchmakers started making them.
THE FIRST ROOM AND WALL CLOCKS OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE.
The “Window to Europe, opened” by Peter I, gave Russia the opportunity to get acquainted with watchmaking in the West. Catherine I, Elizaveta Petrovna and Catherine II were presented with pendulum and pocket watches from the best European watchmakers of that time.
In Russia, Catherine II the Great even made attempts to create a watch industry.
In 1774, watchmakers Basilier and Sando, thanks to financial assistance and material support from Catherine, organized the first watch manufactory in Russia in Moscow. In 1796, two watch factories were founded. One is in St. Petersburg, and the other is in Moscow. However, the factory in Moscow closed after operating for less than 10 years. The factory in St. Petersburg existed a little longer, but it also closed.
His Serene Highness Prince Grigory Alexandrovich Potemkin-Tavrichesky (09/13/1739 - 10/05/1791) organized a factory-school on his estate Dubrovna (Belarus) in 1781.
The Swede Peter Nordsteen (1742-1807, Ruotsi, Sweden) was invited to transfer knowledge in watchmaking. In this factory-school, 33 serf students studied watchmaking. After his death, Catherine II bought the factory-school from the heirs of G.A. Potemkin. The Empress issued a Decree according to which the factory was transferred to Moscow. A special building was built for the factory in Kupavna, Moscow province. Clocks of “every kind” produced at the factory: wall clocks, striking clocks, pocket clocks, were not inferior in quality to the watches of European masters. But only a small part of them was sold, and the bulk was provided to the royal court.
In Russia, indoor wall and table and pocket clocks began to spread widely in the 18th century. On Myasnitskaya in Moscow a “Clock Yard” was formed, where many watchmakers worked. Watch workshops continued to open on this street. Among them was the watch workshop of brothers Nikolai and Ivan Bunetop. In the middle of the 19th century, their “craftsmanship” gained fame, and the brothers were called to restore the Kremlin chimes on the Spasskaya Tower. On Tverskaya there were famous watch workshops of D.I. Tolstoy and I.P. Nosov. At the beginning of Nikolsky Lane in house No. 1/12 there was a watch shop of the merchant Kalashnikov. Mikhail Alekseevich Moskvin served as its clerk. From childhood he became interested in mechanics and the design of watches. In his father's house there was a family heirloom - a clock from the late 18th century. Mikhail Moskvin learned his skills from the best watchmakers in Austria. So already in 1882, watches with the “MM” stamp appeared in Russia. And the first clocks branded “MM” were floor and wall clocks.
Pavel (Pavel-Eduard) Karlovich Bure (P.Bure1810 - 1882) watchmaker, St. Petersburg merchant, founder of the famous watch brand “Pavel Bure”. PC. Bure founded his business in Russia in 1815. The quality of the watches made was recognized, and he became a supplier to the “Court of His Imperial Majesty.” However, these were mainly pocket, table and mantel clocks. They were mainly used by wealthy people.
The mechanisms of pocket and wall watches were made by the watch company “V. Gaby”.
WALL CLOCK OF ROYAL RUSSIA. (End of the 19th century - beginning of the 20th century).
In our country (Russia), cheap and rough wall clocks (the so-called “walkers” or “yokal-shchiki”) are made by artisans in the village of Sharapova, Zvenigorod district, Moscow province.
Walkers are small mechanical wall clocks with a simplified device with weights.
Walkers are a very cheap (from 50 kopecks) wall clock, with one weight, without a strike.
Here is what you can read in the Proceedings of the Saratov Scientific Archival Commission: (Published by the printing house of the Shchetinin brothers of the Serdob district, Saratov province. Serdobsk - 1913):
“...the production of walkers and wall clocks in the village of Sharapovo, which began in the 60s of the 19th century, continued to develop at the beginning of the 20th century... ...the production of wall clocks in Moscow was no higher than in the village of Sharapovo... ... In Moscow, the technology for producing wall clocks is still at a low level...”
WALL CLOCK IN SOVIET RUSSIA.
IN Soviet Russia The production of wall clocks was mastered at the Second Moscow Watch Factory, where household alarm clocks and industrial and outdoor electric clock systems were also produced.
The decision to create our own watch industry was made by the Council of People's Commissars in 1927. In September 1930, the 1st State Watch Factory opened its doors in Moscow, and in 1931 - the 2nd State Watch Factory.
Walkers is the affectionate name for a simple home kitchen wall clock. They were so simple, cheap and unpretentious that their production continued for many years. And it all started with artisans from the village of Sharapovo - “Switzerland near Moscow”...
WALL CLOCK OF MODERN RUSSIA.
Modern mechanical wall clocks also use a weight or spring power source. The accuracy of such a mechanism is: + 40 -20 sec/day (first class accuracy).
Wall clocks with a quartz clock mechanism and a battery power source are also widely used. They use a quartz crystal as an oscillating system. The first quartz watch was released by HAMILTON in 1957. High-quality household quartz watches have an accuracy of +/- 15 seconds per month.
IN modern life wall clocks are used not only as instruments for measuring time, but also serve as a part interior design and room decorations. Wall decorations often reflect the tastes of the homeowners.
Designers come up with wall clocks that amaze and amaze with their originality.
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The most accurate clocks are atomic ones. The most accurate atomic clocks are located in Germany.
In a million years they will only “sin” for ONE second.
