Classicism (French classicisme, from Latin classicus - exemplary) is an artistic and architectural style, a movement in European art of the 17th-19th centuries.

Classicism went through three stages in its development:

* Early classicism (1760s - early 1780s)
* Strict classicism (mid-1780s - 1790s)
* Empire style (from the French empire - “empire”)
Empire - the style of late (high) classicism in architecture and applied arts. Originated in France during the reign of Emperor Napoleon I; developed during the first three decades of the 19th century; replaced by eclectic movements.

Although this phenomenon is European culture As classicism affected all manifestations of art (painting, literature, poetry, sculpture, theater), in this article we will look at classicism in architecture and interior design.

The history of classicism

Classicism in architecture replaced the pompous Rococo, a style which, since the mid-18th century, had already been widely criticized for being overly complicated, pompous, mannered, and for complicating the composition with decorative elements. During this period, ideas of enlightenment began to attract more and more attention in European society, which was reflected in architecture. Thus, the attention of the architects of that time was attracted by the simplicity, conciseness, clarity, calm and rigor of ancient and, above all, Greek architecture. The growing interest in antiquity was facilitated by the discovery in 1755 of Pompeii with its richest artistic monuments, excavations in Herculaneum, the study of ancient architecture in southern Italy, on the basis of which new views on Roman and Greek architecture were formed. The new style - classicism was a natural result of the development of Renaissance architecture and its transformation.

Famous architectural structures of classicism:

• David Mayernik
  Exterior of the Fleming Library at the American School in Lugano, Switzerland (1996) " target="_blank"> Fleming Library Fleming Library
• Robert Adam
  An example of British Palladianism is the London mansion Osterley Park " target="_blank"> Osterley Park Osterley Park
• Claude-Nicolas Ledoux
  Customs checkpoint on Stalingrad Square in Paris " target="_blank"> Customs outpost Customs outpost
• Andrea Palladio
  Andrea Palladio. Villa Rotunda near Vicenza" target="_blank"> Villa Rotunda Villa Rotunda

Main features of classicism

The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by regularity of layout and clarity of volumetric form. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular planning system.

Architects of Classicism

Andrea Palladio (Italian: Andrea Palladio; 1508-1580, real name Andrea di Pietro) - great Italian architect late Renaissance. The founder of Palladianism and classicism. Probably one of the most influential architects in history.

Inigo Jones (1573-1652) was an English architect, designer and artist who pioneered the British architectural tradition.

Claude Nicolas Ledoux (1736-1806) was a master of French classicism architecture who anticipated many of the principles of modernism. Blondel's student.

The most significant interiors in the classicist style were designed by the Scot Robert Adam, who returned to his homeland from Rome in 1758. He was greatly impressed by both the archaeological research of Italian scientists and the architectural fantasies of Piranesi. In Adam’s interpretation, classicism was a style hardly inferior to rococo in the sophistication of its interiors, which gained it popularity not only among democratically minded circles of society, but also among the aristocracy. Like his French colleagues, Adam preached a complete rejection of details devoid of constructive function.

In Russia, Carl Rossi, Andrei Voronikhin and Andreyan Zakharov proved themselves to be outstanding masters of the Empire style. Many foreign architects who worked in Russia were only able to fully demonstrate their talent here. Among them we should name the Italians Giacomo Quarenghi, Antonio Rinaldi, the Frenchman Wallen-Delamot, and the Scotsman Charles Cameron. All of them mainly worked at the court in St. Petersburg and its environs.

In Britain, the Empire style corresponds to the so-called “Regency style” (the largest representative is John Nash).

German architects Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel are building up Munich and Berlin with grandiose museum and other public buildings in the spirit of the Parthenon.

Types of classicism style buildings

The character of architecture in most cases remained dependent on the tectonics of the load-bearing wall and the vault, which became flatter. The portico becomes an important plastic element, while the walls outside and inside are divided by small pilasters and cornices. In the composition of the whole and details, volumes and plans, symmetry prevails.

The color scheme is characterized by light pastel tones. White color usually serves to identify architectural elements, which are a symbol of active tectonics. The interior becomes lighter, more restrained, the furniture is simple and light, while the designers used Egyptian, Greek or Roman motifs.

The most significant urban planning concepts and their implementation in real life at the end of the 18th and early 18th centuries are associated with classicism. half of the 19th century V. During this period, new cities, parks, and resorts were founded.

Classicism in the interior

Furniture from the Classical era was solid and respectable, made from valuable wood. The texture of wood becomes of great importance, acting as a decorative element in the interior. Furniture items were often decorated with carved inserts made of valuable wood. Decorative elements are more restrained, but expensive. The shapes of objects are simplified, the lines are straightened. The legs are straightened, the surfaces become simpler. Popular colors: mahogany plus light bronze finish. Chairs and armchairs are upholstered in fabrics with floral patterns.

Chandeliers and lamps are equipped with crystal pendants and are quite massive in design.

The interior also contains porcelain, mirrors in expensive frames, books, and paintings.

The colors of this style often have crisp, almost primal yellows, blues, and purples and greens, the latter being used with black and gray as well as bronze and silver embellishments. Popular white. Colored varnishes (white, green) are often used in combination with light gilding of individual parts.

• David Mayernik
  Interior of the Fleming Library at the American School in Lugano, Switzerland (1996) " target="_blank"> Fleming Library Fleming Library
• Elizabeth M. Dowling
  Modern interior design in a classic style " target="_blank"> Modern classics Modern classics
• Classicism
  Modern interior design in a classic style " target="_blank"> Hall Hall
• Classicism
  Modern interior design of a dining room in a classic style " target="_blank"> Dining room Dining room

Classicism in Russian literature.

Changes in the political, cultural, and economic life of Russia posed a number of urgent tasks for literature: it was necessary to understand the changes that had taken place and, having comprehended them, reflect the surrounding reality. The literature of this period not only reproduces new phenomena, but also evaluates them, comparing them with the past, advocating in defense of Peter's conquests. In the 30-50s, a new direction was formed in literature – Russian classicism . This led to radical changes in the field of literature, which can be called the first steps of Russian classicism: New classic genres are created, literary language and versification are formed, theoretical treatises are written to substantiate such innovations. The founders of this trend in Russian literature are Kantemir, Trediakovsky, Lomonosov, Sumarokov, whose work belongs entirely to XVIII century. All of them were born in the era of Peter, from childhood they breathed its air and with their creativity they sought to approve and defend Peter’s reforms in the years following the death of Peter the Great. The basis of Russian classicism in literature was the ideology that emerged as a result of awareness of the strengths of Peter the Great's reforms. Russian classicism was created by a generation of European-educated young writers who defended this ideology.

Word classicism comes from Latin word classicus, i.e. exemplary. This was the name of ancient literature, which was widely used by classicists. Classicism received its most vivid embodiment in the 17th century, in France, in the works of Corneille, Racine, Molière, and Boileau. The foundation of European classicism became absolutism and advanced philosophical teachings of the time. The aesthetic ideal of classicism is a man who has mastered his passions and subordinated the personal to the public. In art, the concept of “duty” arises in relation to one’s state; this duty is above all else. In a conflict between passion and duty, duty always wins. A person must have high moral principles, then he will prefer the fulfillment of state or public duty to his personal interests.

The main thing in the ideology of classicism is state pathos. The state was declared highest value. The classicists believed in the possibility of its further improvement. In their view, the state was a reasonably structured social organism, where each class fulfills the duties assigned to it. Man, from the point of view of classicists, is an egoist, but he is amenable to education and the influence of civilization. The key to positive changes in human “nature” is reason, which classicists contrasted with emotions and “passions.” Reason helps to realize “duty” to the state, while “passions” distract from socially useful activities.

Russian classicism was formed under similar conditions of the absolutist power of the emperor, but it arose much later, so it has its own differences:

1. Russian classicism was formed in the era of the European Enlightenment, therefore it main task is the reconstruction of society based on the ideas of the Enlightenment. Classical writers were confident that it was possible, on reasonable grounds, through proper education, which should organize a state headed by an enlightened monarch, to put an end to human “evil nature” and create a perfect society.

2. Russian classicism arises after the death of Peter I, during the period of reaction, and new Russian literature begins not with odes glorifying the actions of the emperor, but with Cantemir’s satires, the heroes of which are not ancient heroes, but contemporaries, and Cantemir does not ridicule specific human vices, but exposes social shortcomings and fights reactionaries.

3. The first Russian classicists were already aware of the educational idea about the natural equality of people. But this thesis at that time had not yet been embodied in the demand for the equality of all classes before the law. Cantemir, based on the principles of “natural law,” called on the nobles to humanely treat the peasants. Sumarokov pointed to the natural equality of nobles and peasants.

4. The main difference between Russian classicism and European classicism was that he combined the ideas of absolutism with the ideas of the early European Enlightenment. First of all, this is the theory of enlightened absolutism. According to this theory, the state should be headed by a wise “enlightened” monarch, demanding from each of the classes and individuals honest service for the benefit of the whole society. An example of such a ruler for Russian classicists was Peter the Great. Russian literature begins the process of teaching and educating the autocrat.

He reigns over the people to bliss,

And leading the common benefit to perfection:

The orphan does not cry under his scepter,

The innocent is not afraid...

... The flatterer does not bow to the feet of a nobleman

The king is a judge equal to all and a father equal to all...

– wrote A.P. Sumarokov. The king must remember that he is the same person as his subjects; if he cannot establish the proper order, then he is a “vile idol”, “an enemy of the people.”

5. The word “enlightened” did not just mean educated person, but a human citizen, to whom knowledge helped to realize his responsibility to society. “Ignorance” implied not only a lack of knowledge, but also a lack of understanding of one’s duty to the state. That is why in Russian classicism of the 30-50s a huge place was given to sciences, knowledge, and enlightenment. In almost all of his odes M.V. speaks about the benefits of science. Lomonosov. Kantemir’s first satire, “To Your Mind. On those who blaspheme the teaching."

6. Russian classicists were close to the struggle of enlighteners against the church and church ideology. They denounced the ignorance and rude morals of the clergy, defended science and its adherents from persecution by the church.

7. The art of Russian classicists is based not only on works of antiquity, it is quite closely connected with national tradition and oral folk art, their literature often takes events of Russian history as a basis.

8. In the artistic field, Russian classicists faced very difficult tasks. Russian literature of this period did not know well-processed literary language, did not have a specific genre system. Therefore, Russian writers of the second third of the 18th century had to not only create a new literary direction, but also to put in order the literary language, the system of versification and to master genres unknown until that time in Russia. Each of the authors was a pioneer: Kantemir laid the foundation for Russian satire, Lomonosov legitimized the ode genre, Sumarokov acted as the author of tragedies and comedies.

9. Russian classicists created many theoretical works in the field of genres, literary language and versification. V. K. Trediakovsky wrote a treatise “A New and Brief Method for Composing Russian Poems” (1735), in which he substantiated the basic principles of the new syllabic-tonic system, and Lomonosov in his “Letter on the Rules of Russian Poetry” (1739) developed and finalized syllabic-tonic system of versification /41 /. In his discussion “On the benefits of church books in Russian language» Lomonosov carried out a reform of the literary language and proposed the doctrine of the “three calms”. Sumarokov in his treatise “Instructions for those who want to be writers” gave a description of the content and style of classicist genres.

As a result of such research, a literary movement was created that had its own program, creative method and a coherent system of genres.

Artistic creativity was considered by classicists as strict adherence to “reasonable” rules, eternal laws created on the basis of studying the best examples of ancient authors and French literature XVII V. According to the classic canons, there were “correct” and “incorrect” works. Even the works of Shakespeare were among the “wrong” ones. Strict rules existed for each genre and required strict adherence. The genres were distinguished by their “purity” and unambiguity. For example, it was not allowed to introduce “touching” episodes into a comedy, and comic ones into a tragedy. The classicists developed a strict system of genres. Genres were divided into “high” and “low”. The “high” genres included ode, epic poem, commendable speech. To the “low” - comedy, fable, epigram. True, Lomonosov also proposed “middle” genres - tragedy and satire, but tragedy gravitated towards the “high” genres, and satire - towards the “low” genres. In the “high” genres, heroes were depicted who could serve as role models - monarchs, generals, etc., the most popular of them was the image of Peter the Great. In the “low” genres, characters were depicted who were seized by one or another “passion”.

The basis of the creative method of the classicists was rationalistic thinking. The classicists sought to decompose human psychology into its simplest component forms. In this regard, in the literature of classicism, abstractly generalizing, without individualization, images arise (miser, prude, dandy, braggart, hypocrite, etc.). It should be noted that it was strictly forbidden to combine different “passions” and even more so “vices” and “virtues” in one character. The intimate, everyday aspects of the life of an ordinary (private) person were not of interest to classic writers. Their heroes, as a rule, are kings, generals, devoid of typical national features, abstract schemes, bearers of the author's ideas.

When creating dramatic works, equally strict rules had to be followed. These rules concerned " three unities" - place, time and action. The classicists wanted to create a unique illusion of life on stage, so the stage time had to be close to the time that the viewer spends in the theater. The duration of action could not exceed 24 hours - this unity of time. Unity of place due to the fact that the theater, divided into a stage and auditorium, gave the audience the opportunity to see someone else’s life. If the action is moved to another place, this illusion will be broken. Therefore, it was believed that it was best to play out the action in the same, permanent scenery; it was much worse, but it was acceptable when the events developed within the confines of one house, castle or palace. Unity of action required the presence of only one in the play storyline and a minimum number of actors. The strictest adherence to the three unities constrained the inspiration of playwrights. However, in such stage regulation there was a rational grain - the desire for a clear organization dramatic work, focusing the viewer’s attention on the characters themselves and their relationships. All this made many theatrical performances of the era of Russian classicism true art.

Despite the strict regulation of creativity, the works of each of the classicists were distinguished by their own individual characteristics. So, Kantemir and Sumarokov great value given to civic education. They called on the nobles to fulfill their public duty and denounced self-interest and ignorance. To achieve this goal, Kantemir wrote his satires, and Sumarokov wrote tragedies, where he subjected the monarchs themselves to harsh judgment, appealing to their civic duty and conscience.

Classicism Classicism

An artistic style in European art of the 17th - early 19th centuries, one of the most important features of which was the appeal to the forms of ancient art as an ideal aesthetic standard. Continuing the traditions of the Renaissance (admiration for the ancient ideals of harmony and proportion, faith in the power of the human mind), classicism was also its original antithesis, since with the loss of Renaissance harmony, the unity of feeling and reason, the tendency to aesthetically experience the world as a harmonious whole was lost. Concepts such as society and personality, man and nature, element and consciousness, in classicism are polarized and become mutually exclusive, which brings it closer (while maintaining all the fundamental ideological and stylistic differences) with the baroque, also imbued with the consciousness of the general discord generated by the crisis of Renaissance ideals. Typically, classicism of the 17th century is distinguished. and XVIII - early XIX centuries. (the latter in foreign art history is often called neoclassicism), but in plastic arts trends of classicism emerged already in the second half of the 16th century. in Italy - in the architectural theory and practice of Palladio, theoretical treatises of Vignola, S. Serlio; more consistently - in the works of J. P. Bellori (XVII century), as well as in the aesthetic standards of the academicians of the Bolognese school. However, in the 17th century. classicism, which developed in intensely polemical interaction with the Baroque, only developed into a coherent stylistic system in French artistic culture. In the bosom of the French artistic culture The classicism of the 18th century was predominantly formed, which became a pan-European style. The principles of rationalism underlying the aesthetics of classicism (the same ones that determined the philosophical ideas of R. Descartes and Cartesianism) determined the view of work of art as the fruit of reason and logic, triumphing over the chaos and fluidity of sensory life. In classicism, only what is enduring and timeless has aesthetic value. Attaching great importance to the social and educational function of art, classicism puts forward new ethical norms that shape the image of its heroes: resistance to the cruelty of fate and the vicissitudes of life, subordination of the personal to the general, passions to duty, reason, the supreme interests of society, the laws of the universe. Orientation towards a rational principle, towards enduring examples also determined the normative requirements of the aesthetics of classicism, the regulation of artistic rules, a strict hierarchy of genres - from “high” (historical, mythological, religious) to “low” or “small” (landscape, portrait, still life) ; each genre had strict content boundaries and clear formal characteristics. The consolidation of the theoretical doctrines of classicism was facilitated by the activities of the Royals founded in Paris. Academies - painting and sculpture (1648) and architecture (1671).

The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by logical layout and geometric volumetric shape. The constant appeal of the architects of classicism to the heritage of ancient architecture implied not only the use of its individual motifs and elements, but also the comprehension of the general laws of its architectonics. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms closer to antiquity than in the architecture of previous eras; in buildings it is used in such a way that it does not obscure the overall structure of the structure, but becomes its subtle and restrained accompaniment. The interior of classicism is characterized by clarity of spatial divisions and softness of colors. By making extensive use of perspective effects in monumental and decorative painting, the masters of classicism fundamentally separated the illusory space from the real. The urban planning of classicism of the 17th century, genetically connected with the principles of the Renaissance and Baroque, actively developed (in the plans of fortified cities) the concept of an “ideal city” and created its own type of regular absolutist city-residence (Versailles). In the second half of the 18th century. New planning techniques are emerging that provide for the organic combination of urban development with elements of nature, the creation of open spaces that spatially merge with the street or embankment. The subtlety of laconic decor, the expediency of forms, and the inextricable connection with nature are inherent in the buildings (mainly country palaces and villas) of representatives of Palladianism in the 18th - early 19th centuries.

The tectonic clarity of the architecture of classicism corresponds to the clear delineation of plans in sculpture and painting. The plastic art of classicism, as a rule, is designed for a fixed point of view and is characterized by smoothness of forms. The moment of movement in the poses of the figures usually does not violate their plastic isolation and calm statuesqueness. In the painting of classicism, the main elements of form are line and chiaroscuro (especially in late classicism, when painting sometimes tends toward monochrome, and graphics toward pure linearity); local color clearly identifies objects and landscape plans (brown - for near, green - for middle, blue - for distant plans), which brings closer spatial composition painting to the composition of the stage area.

The founder and greatest master of classicism of the 17th century. was French artist N. Poussin, whose paintings are marked by the sublimity of their philosophical and ethical content, the harmony of rhythmic structure and color. High development in the painting of classicism of the 17th century. received an “ideal landscape” (Poussin, C. Lorrain, G. Duguay), which embodied the classicists’ dream of a “golden age” of humanity. The formation of classicism in French architecture is associated with the buildings of F. Mansart, marked by clarity of composition and order divisions. High examples of mature classicism in architecture XVII V. - eastern façade of the Louvre (C. Perrault), works by L. Levo, F. Blondel. From the second half of the 17th century. French classicism incorporates some elements of Baroque architecture (the palace and park of Versailles - architects J. Hardouin-Mansart, A. Le Nôtre). In the XVII - early XVIII centuries. classicism was formed in the architecture of Holland (architects J. van Kampen, P. Post), which gave rise to a particularly restrained version of it, and in the “Palladian” architecture of England (architect I. Jones), where a national version was finally formed in the works of K. Wren and others English classicism. Cross connections with French and Dutch classicism, as well as with the early Baroque, were reflected in the short, brilliant flowering of classicism in the architecture of Sweden in the late 17th and early 18th centuries. (architect N. Tessin the Younger).

In the middle of the 18th century. the principles of classicism were transformed in the spirit of Enlightenment aesthetics. In architecture, the appeal to “naturalness” put forward the requirement for constructive justification of order elements of the composition, in the interior - the development of a flexible layout for a comfortable residential building. The ideal setting for the house was the landscape of an “English” park. Huge influence on the classicism of the 18th century. had a rapid development of archaeological knowledge about Greek and Roman antiquity (the splits of Herculaneum, Pompeii, etc.); The works of I. I. Winkelman, I. V. Goethe, and F. Militsiya made their contribution to the theory of classicism. In French classicism of the 18th century. new architectural types were defined: an exquisitely intimate mansion, a ceremonial public building, an open city square (architects J. A. Gabriel, J. J. Souflot). Civil pathos and lyricism were combined in the plastic arts of J. B. Pigalle, E. M. Falconet, J. A. Houdon, in the mythological painting of J. M. Vienne, decorative landscapes Yu. Roberta. Great Eve french revolution(1789-94) gave rise in architecture to the desire for severe simplicity, a bold search for the monumental geometricism of a new, orderless architecture (C. N. Ledoux, E. L. Bulle, J. J. Lequeu). These searches (also marked by the influence of the architectural etchings of G.B. Piranesi) served as the starting point for the later phase of classicism - Empire style. The painting of the revolutionary trend of French classicism is represented by the courageous drama of historical and portrait images J. L. David. During the years of the empire of Napoleon I, magnificent representationalism grew in architecture (C. Percier, P. F. L. Fontaine, J. F. Chalgrin). The painting of late classicism, despite the appearance of individual major masters (J. O. D. Ingres), degenerates into official apologetic or sentimental-erotic salon art.

International center of classicism of the 18th - early 19th centuries. became Rome, where the academic tradition dominated in art with a combination of nobility of forms and cold, abstract idealization, not uncommon for academicism ( German painter A. R. Mengs, Austrian landscape painter I. A. Koch, sculptors - Italian A. Canova, Dane B. Thorvaldsen). For German classicism of the 18th - early 19th centuries. The architecture is characterized by the strict forms of the Palladian F. W. Erdmansdorff, the “heroic” Hellenism of K. G. Langhans, D. and F. Gilly. In the work of K. F. Schinkel - the pinnacle of late German classicism in architecture - the harsh monumentality of images is combined with the search for new functional solutions. In the fine art of German classicism, contemplative in spirit, portraits of A. and V. Tischbein, mythological cardboards of A. J. Carstens, plastic works of I. G. Shadov, K. D. Rauch stand out; in decorative and applied arts - furniture by D. Roentgen. In English architecture of the 18th century. The Palladian movement, closely associated with the flourishing of country park estates (architects W. Kent, J. Payne, W. Chambers), dominated. The discoveries of ancient archeology were reflected in the special elegance of the order decoration of R. Adam's buildings. IN early XIX V. In English architecture, features of the Empire style appear (J. Soane). The national achievement of English classicism in architecture was the high level of culture in the design of residential estates and cities, bold urban planning initiatives in the spirit of the idea of ​​a garden city (architects J. Wood, J. Wood the Younger, J. Nash). In other arts, the graphics and sculpture of J. Flaxman are closest to classicism, in decorative and applied art - ceramics by J. Wedgwood and the craftsmen of the Derby factory. In the XVIII - early XIX centuries. classicism is also established in Italy (architect G. Piermarini), Spain (architect X. de Villanueva), Belgium, countries Eastern Europe, Scandinavia, in the USA (architects G. Jefferson, J. Hoban; painters B. West and J. S. Colley). At the end of the first third of the 19th century. the leading role of classicism is disappearing; in the second half of the 19th century. classicism is one of the pseudo-historical styles of eclecticism. At the same time artistic tradition classicism comes to life in neoclassicism in the second half of the 19th - 20th centuries.

The heyday of Russian classicism dates back to the last third of the 18th - first third of the 19th centuries, although already beginning of XVIII V. marked by a creative appeal (in the architecture of St. Petersburg) to the urban planning experience of French classicism of the 17th century. (the principle of symmetrical-axial planning systems). Russian classicism embodied a new, unprecedented for Russia in scope, national pathos and ideological fullness historical stage of the heyday of Russian secular culture. Early Russian classicism in architecture (1760-70s; J. B. Vallin-Delamot, A. F. Kokorinov, Yu. M. Felten, K. I. Blank, A. Rinaldi) still retains plastic richness and dynamics forms inherent in Baroque and Rococo. The architects of the mature period of classicism (1770-90s; V.I. Bazhenov, M.F. Kazakov, I.E. Starov) created classical types of metropolitan palace-estate and large comfortable residential building, which became models in the widespread construction of suburban noble estates and in the new, ceremonial buildings of cities. The art of the ensemble in country park estates is a major national contribution of Russian classicism to world artistic culture. In estate construction, the Russian version of Palladianism arose (N. A. Lvov), and a new type of chamber palace emerged (C. Cameron, J. Quarenghi). A feature of Russian classicism in architecture is the unprecedented scale of organized state urban planning: regular plans for more than 400 cities were developed, ensembles of the centers of Kostroma, Poltava, Tver, Yaroslavl and other cities were formed; the practice of “regulating” urban plans, as a rule, consistently combined the principles of classicism with the historically established planning structure of the old Russian city. Turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries. marked by the largest urban development achievements in both capitals. A grandiose ensemble of the center of St. Petersburg took shape (A. N. Voronikhin, A. D. Zakharov, J. Thomas de Thomon, and later K. I. Rossi). “Classical Moscow” was formed on different urban planning principles, which was built up during the period of its restoration and reconstruction after the fire of 1812 with small mansions with cozy interiors. The principles of regularity here were consistently subordinated to the general pictorial freedom of the spatial structure of the city. The most prominent architects of late Moscow classicism are D. I. Gilardi, O. I. Bove, A. G. Grigoriev.

In the fine arts, the development of Russian classicism is closely connected with the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts (founded in 1757). The sculpture of Russian classicism is represented by “heroic” monumental and decorative sculpture, constituting a finely thought-out synthesis with Empire architecture, monuments full of civic pathos, elegiacally enlightened tombstones, and easel sculpture (I. P. Prokofiev, F. G. Gordeev, M. I. Kozlovsky , I. P. Martos, F. F. Shchedrin, V. I. Demut-Malinovsky, S. S. Pimenov, I. I. Terebenev). Russian classicism in painting was most clearly manifested in works of historical and mythological genres (A. P. Losenko, G. I. Ugryumov, I. A. Akimov, A. I. Ivanov, A. E. Egorov, V. K. Shebuev, early A. A. Ivanov). Some features of classicism are also inherent in the subtly psychological sculptural portraits of F. I. Shubin, in painting - in the portraits of D. G. Levitsky, V. L. Borovikovsky, and in the landscapes of F. M. Matveev. In the decorative and applied arts of Russian classicism, artistic modeling and carving in architecture, bronze products, cast iron, porcelain, crystal, furniture, damask fabrics, etc. stand out. From the second third of the 19th century. For fine arts Russian classicism is increasingly characterized by soulless, far-fetched academic schematism, with which the masters of the democratic movement are fighting.

K. Lorrain. "Morning" ("Meeting of Jacob with Rachel"). 1666. Hermitage. Leningrad.

B. Thorvaldsen. "Jason." Marble. 1802 - 1803. Thorvaldson Museum. Copenhagen.

J. L. David. "Paris and Helen". 1788. Louvre. Paris.

Literature: N. N. Kovalenskaya, Russian classicism, M., 1964; Renaissance. Baroque. Classicism. The problem of styles in Western European art of the 15th-17th centuries, M., 1966; E. I. Rotenberg, Western European art XVII V., M., 1971; Artistic culture XVIII V. Materials scientific conference, 1973, M., 1974; E. V. Nikolaev, Classical Moscow, M., 1975; Literary manifestos of Western European classicists, M., 1980; Dispute about the ancient and the new, (translated from French), M., 1985; Zeitier R., Klassizismus und Utopia, Stockh., 1954; Kaufmann E., Architecture in the age of Reason, Camb. (Mass.), 1955; Hautecoeur L., L"histoire de l"architecture classique en France, v. 1-7, P., 1943-57; Tapii V., Baroque et classicisme, 2nd, P., 1972; Greenhalgh M., The classical tradition in art, L., 1979.

Source: "Popular" art encyclopedia." Ed. Polevoy V.M.; M.: Publishing house " Soviet encyclopedia", 1986.)

(from Latin classicus - exemplary), artistic style and direction in European art 17 – early. 19th century, an important feature of which was the appeal to the heritage of antiquity (Ancient Greece and Rome) as a norm and an ideal model. The aesthetics of classicism is characterized by rationalism, the desire to establish certain rules for creating a work, a strict hierarchy (subordination) of types and genres art. Architecture reigned in the synthesis of arts. High genres in painting, historical, religious and mythological paintings were considered, providing the viewer with heroic examples to follow; the lowest - portrait, landscape, still life, everyday painting. Each genre was prescribed strict boundaries and clearly defined formal characteristics; mixing the sublime with the base, the tragic with the comic, the heroic with the ordinary was not allowed. Classicism is a style of oppositions. Its ideologists proclaimed the superiority of the public over the personal, reason over emotions, and a sense of duty over desires. Classicist works are distinguished by laconicism, clear logic of design, balance compositions.

In the development of style, two periods are distinguished: classicism of the 17th century. and neoclassicism of the second sex. 18th – first third of the 19th century. In Russia, where until the reforms of Peter I the culture remained medieval, the style manifested itself only from the end. 18th century Therefore, in Russian art history, in contrast to Western art, classicism means Russian art of the 1760s–1830s.

Classicism of the 17th century. manifested itself mainly in France and established itself in confrontation with baroque. In the architecture of the building A. Palladio became a model for many masters. Classicist buildings are distinguished by the clarity of geometric shapes and clarity of layout, appeal to the motifs of ancient architecture, and above all to the order system (see Art. Architectural order). Architects are increasingly using post-beam structure, in buildings the symmetry of the composition was clearly revealed, straight lines were preferred to curved ones. The walls are treated as smooth surfaces painted in calm colors, laconic sculptural decor emphasizes the structural elements (buildings by F. Mansart, eastern façade Louvre, created by C. Perrault; creativity of L. Levo, F. Blondel). From the second floor. 17th century French classicism incorporates more and more Baroque elements ( Versailles, architect J. Hardouin-Mansart and others, park layout - A. Lenotre).

The sculpture is dominated by balanced, closed, laconic volumes, usually designed for a fixed point of view; the carefully polished surface shines with a cool shine (F. Girardon, A. Coisevoux).
The establishment of the Royal Academy of Architecture (1671) and the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture (1648) in Paris contributed to the consolidation of the principles of classicism. The latter was headed by C. Lebrun, from 1662 the first painter of Louis XIV, who painted the Gallery of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles (1678–84). In painting, the primacy of line over color was recognized, clear drawing and statuesque forms were valued; preference was given to local (pure, unmixed) colors. The classicist system that developed at the Academy served to develop plots and allegories, glorifying the monarch (“the sun king” was associated with the god of light and patron of the arts Apollo). The most outstanding classicist painters are N. Poussin and K. Lorrain connected their life and work with Rome. Poussin interprets ancient history as a collection of heroic deeds; in the late period, the role of epically majestic landscapes increased in his paintings. Compatriot Lorrain created ideal landscapes in which the dream of a golden age came to life - an era of happy harmony between man and nature.

The emergence of neoclassicism in the 1760s. occurred in opposition to style rococo. The style was formed under the influence of ideas Enlightenment. In its development, three main periods can be distinguished: early (1760–80), mature (1780–1800) and late (1800–30), otherwise called style empire style, which developed simultaneously with romanticism. Neoclassicism became international style, becoming widespread in Europe and America. It was most vividly embodied in the art of Great Britain, France and Russia. Archaeological finds in the ancient Roman cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii. Pompeian motifs frescoes and items arts and crafts began to be widely used by artists. The formation of the style was also influenced by the works of the German art historian I. I. Winkelman, who considered the most important qualities ancient art "noble simplicity and calm grandeur."

In Great Britain, where back in the first third of the 18th century. architects showed interest in antiquity and the heritage of A. Palladio, the transition to neoclassicism was smooth and natural (W. Kent, J. Payne, W. Chambers). One of the founders of the style was Robert Adam, who worked with his brother James (Cadlestone Hall Castle, 1759–85). Adam's style was clearly manifested in interior design, where he used light and sophisticated ornamentation in the spirit of Pompeian frescoes and ancient Greek vase paintings(The Etruscan Room at Osterley Park Mansion, London, 1761–79). D. Wedgwood's enterprises produced ceramic tableware, decorative linings for furniture, and other decorations in the classicist style, which received European recognition. The relief models for Wedgwood were made by the sculptor and draftsman D. Flaxman.

In France, the architect J. A. Gabriel created, in the spirit of early neoclassicism, both chamber buildings, lyrical in mood ("Petit Trianon" in Versailles, 1762–68), and a new ensemble of Place Louis XV (now Concorde) in Paris, which acquired an unprecedented openness. The Church of St. Genevieve (1758–90; in the late 18th century it was turned into the Pantheon), erected by J. J. Soufflot, has a Greek cross in plan, is crowned with a huge dome and more academically and dryly reproduces ancient forms. In French sculpture of the 18th century. elements of neoclassicism appear in individual works of E. Falcone, in tombstones and busts of A. Houdon. Closer to neoclassicism are the works of O. Pazhu (Portrait of Du Barry, 1773; monument to J. L. L. Buffon, 1776), in the beginning. 19th century – D. A. Chaudet and J. Shinard, who created a type of ceremonial bust with a base in the form herms. The most significant master of French neoclassicism and Empire painting was J.L. David. The ethical ideal in David's historical paintings was distinguished by severity and uncompromisingness. In “The Oath of the Horatii” (1784), the features of late classicism acquired the clarity of a plastic formula.

Russian classicism expressed itself most fully in architecture, sculpture and historical painting. Architectural works of the transition period from Rococo to Classicism include buildings St. Petersburg Academy arts(1764–88) A. F. Kokorinova and J. B. Vallin-Delamot and the Marble Palace (1768–1785) A. Rinaldi. Early classicism is represented by the names of V.I. Bazhenova and M.F. Kazakova. Many of Bazhenov’s projects remained unfulfilled, but the master’s architectural and urban planning ideas had a significant influence on the formation of the classicism style. Distinctive feature Bazhenov's buildings were used in subtle ways national traditions and the ability to organically incorporate classicist structures into existing buildings. The Pashkov House (1784–86) is an example of a typical Moscow noble mansion that has preserved its features country estate. Most pure examples style are the Senate building in the Moscow Kremlin (1776–87) and the Dolgoruky House (1784–90s). in Moscow, erected by Kazakov. The early stage of classicism in Russia was focused primarily on the architectural experience of France; later, the heritage of antiquity and A. Palladio (N. A. Lvov; D. Quarenghi) began to play a significant role. Mature classicism developed in the work of I.E. Starova(Tauride Palace, 1783–89) and D. Quarenghi (Alexandrovsky Palace in Tsarskoe Selo, 1792–96). In Empire architecture the beginning. 19th century architects strive for ensemble solutions.
The uniqueness of Russian classicist sculpture is that in the works of most masters (F. I. Shubin, I. P. Prokofiev, F. G. Gordeev, F. F. Shchedrin, V. I. Demut-Malinovsky, S. S. Pimenov , I.I. Terebeneva) classicism was closely intertwined with Baroque and Rococo trends. The ideals of classicism were expressed more clearly in monumental and decorative art than in easel sculpture. Classicism found its purest expression in the works of I.P. Martos, who created high examples of classicism in the genre of tombstones (S. S. Volkonskaya, M. P. Sobakina; both - 1782). M.I. Kozlovsky, in the monument to A.V. Suvorov on the Champ de Mars in St. Petersburg, presented the Russian commander as a mighty ancient hero with a sword in his hands, wearing armor and a helmet.
In painting, the ideals of classicism were most consistently expressed by the masters of historical paintings (A.P. Losenko and his students I.A. Akimov and P.I. Sokolov), in whose works plots of ancient history and mythology predominate. At the turn of the 18th–19th centuries. interest in national history(G.I. Ugryumov).
The principles of classicism as a set of formal techniques continued to be used throughout the 19th century. representatives academicism.

Another influential style of the 17th century. became classicism (from the Latin “classicus” - “exemplary”). He focused on imitation of ancient models, which did not mean their simple repetition. The emergence of classicism as an integral style system was associated with the establishment of absolutism in France. The monarchs were impressed by the idea of ​​majestic order, impressive unity, and strict subordination. The state, claiming to be “reasonable,” sought to be seen as a stabilizing, unifying principle. Similar aspirations were inherent in the consciousness of the bourgeoisie, which shared the ideal of a rationally organized state. The attractive side of classicism was its moral and civic orientation.

Supporters of classicism believed that art was supposed to reflect not so much the real, but an ennobled, ideal life, built on the principles of rationality, contributing to the improvement of man and society. In this regard, classicism sought to express lofty ideals, to symmetry and strict organization, logical and clear proportions, to harmony of form and content of a literary, pictorial or musical work.

The aesthetics of classicism formed a strict hierarchy of genres. They were divided into "high"(tragedy, epic, ode, historical, mythological, religious picture, etc.) and "low"(comedy, satire, fable, genre painting, landscape, still life, etc.). Each genre had strict boundaries, and mixing them was considered unacceptable.

Architecture. In contrast to the pretentious Baroque, the architecture of Classicism was characterized by clear geometry of forms, logic and regularity of layout, a combination of a smooth wall with an order, porticoes, colonnades, statues, reliefs and restrained decor. To everyone appearance the building had to demonstrate clarity, order and representation. Symmetry has become an integral feature of all architectural compositions. The restrained and majestic art of the ancient Greeks and Romans became a role model, therefore the basis of the architectural language of classicism was an order close in proportions and forms to the ancient one. The spatial design of the buildings was distinguished by clear plans and a clear logic of the facade, in which the architectural decor served only as an “accompaniment” that did not hide the overall structure of the building. Already in the buildings of one of the founders of French classicism, the architect Francois Mansara(1598 - 1666) the plastic richness of the baroque decor of the facades is combined with the clarity and simplicity of the overall volumetric-spatial composition ( Maisons Palace– Laffite).

Strict orderliness was even introduced into nature. French garden master and landscape architect Andre Le Nôtre(1613–1700) became the creator of the regular system, the so-called “ French» park.

The interiors of the buildings were distinguished by soft colors, moderate use of plastic and sculptural details, and extensive use of pictorial and perspective effects.

Classicism was adopted as the leading style in the absolutist monarchies of Europe. He also had great success in England, where from the end of the 17th century. became the leading style of official buildings. The most notable of them was the London Cathedral of St. Pavel- the largest Protestant church in the world. Ideas of the greatest English architect and scientist ChristopherRena(1632–1723), embodied in this temple, had a significant influence on the development of church architecture in Europe and the USA.

In France, during the reign of Louis XIV (1643–1715), on the basis of classicism, the formation of the so-called “ Big style" Strict and rational classicism could not fully reflect the triumph and greatness of the absolute monarchy. Therefore, French masters turned to the forms of Italian Baroque, from which classicism borrowed some of the decorative elements. The result of this was the creation of two grandiose ensembles - the royal palace Louvre and country royal residence Versailles. One of the leading masters of French classicism took an active part in their construction. Louis Levo(c.1612–1670). Another famous creator of Versailles is an architect and urban planner Jules Hardouin-Mansart(1646–1708) was also the author of the magnificent Cathedral of the Invalides in Paris. The “Grand Style” ensured the gradual spread of the ideas of classicism in most European countries and laid the foundations for an international European court culture.

Painting. As in other forms of art, in painting artists had to focus on perfect examples of antiquity and the High Renaissance. The subjects of the paintings were borrowed mainly from mythology and ancient history, and the heroes were depicted as people of strong characters and actions. One of the main ones was the theme of duty, the theme of affirming the highest ethical principles. According to the aesthetics of classicism, reason was the main criterion of beauty, therefore, in contrast to baroque, classicism did not allow exaggerated emotional expressiveness. Measure and order became the basis of classical painting. The paintings had to be distinguished by overall harmony, and the figures - by severity and classical completeness. The main elements of form modeling were line and chiaroscuro. Color was assigned a subordinate role; it was used to reveal the plasticity of figures and objects, to separate the spatial plans of the picture.

The logical development of the plot, the proportionality of the parts of the whole, external orderliness, harmony, balance of composition - all this has become characteristic features style of the famous French artist NikolaPoussin(1594–1665). Poussin often turned to subjects from ancient history (“ Death of Germanicus"), mythology (" Kingdom of Flora"), placing them at the service of his contemporary era. Glorifying examples of high morality and civic valor, he sought to educate a perfect personality. The artist revealed the deep philosophical meaning of Christian dogmas in the cycle “ Seven sacraments».

The principles of classicism are clearly reflected in the landscape. Artists sought to depict not real, but “improved” nature, created by the artistic imagination of the creator. The “ideal landscape”, which embodied the classicists’ dream of a “golden age” of humanity, was reflected in the paintings Claude Lorrain(1600–1682). His idyllic landscapes with endless distances (“ Sanctuary at Delphi") had a huge influence on the development of European, and, above all, English, landscape painting.

Theater and literature. The laws of classicism were most clearly manifested in drama. In the 17th century the main rules for constructing a classic tragedy were formed: unity of action, place and time; simplicity of the plot, in which reason and duty prevailed over elemental human feelings and passions. The main intrigue should not confuse the viewer and deprive the picture of its integrity. Much attention was paid to the inner world of the hero, who embodies the contradiction of the human personality.

A prominent representative of classicism was the French playwright Pierre Corneille(1606-1684). The theme of the state as the embodiment of reason and national interests was heard in many of his tragedies (“ Horace», « Cinna"). The tragic conflict of passion and duty lay at the heart of the tragicomedy " Sid».

Problems of the relationship between the individual and the state have become the basis of the plot of many tragedies Jean Racine(1639-1699). His " Phaedra"became the pinnacle of dramaturgy not only of the writer himself, but of all French classicism.

The demands of classicism were less clearly manifested in comedies. In the 17th century, French drama gave birth to the greatest comedian, creator of the genre of social comedy Jean Baptiste Moliere(1622–1673). In his work, he ridiculed the class prejudices of the nobles, the narrow-mindedness of the bourgeoisie, the hypocrisy of the clergy, and the corrupting power of money (“ Tartuffe», « Don Juan», « Tradesman in the nobility"). It was thanks to Moliere that the famous Comedie Française theater appeared in Paris in 1680.

In the theater of the 17th century. a classic school of tragic play developed ( Floridor, Scaramouche, M. Bejart, Molière). It was characterized by a special manner of behavior of actors on stage, measured reading of poetry, and a whole system of intonations and gestures.

In the literature of classicism, a significant role is played by prose. Prose works written in the classical style, as a rule, reflected the political, philosophical, religious and ethical views of their authors and were of a pronounced educational and moralizing nature. Prose literature was dominated by works in the form of letters, moralistic or philosophical experiments, aphorisms, sermons, funeral eulogies, and memoirs.

Music. In France the principles of classicism influenced the formation of the French operatic style. Thus, in the operas of the outstanding French composer and conductor Jean-Baptiste Lully(1632–1687) embodied such characteristic classicist features as pathos and heroism, the primacy of the principle of “musical symmetry,” and the predominance of mythological subjects (“ Perseus», « Phaeton»).

Classicism also penetrated into instrumental music. In Italy, a tradition of classical violin technique arose, which has largely survived to this day. Its founder was Arcangelo Corelli(1653–1713). He became one of the creators of the violin sonata and the genre concerto grosso(“big concert”), which served as the basis for the development of symphonic music.

Originating in absolutist France, classicism received wide recognition in almost all European countries, becoming a notable milestone in their artistic development.

Classicism(French “classicisme”, from Latin “classicus” - “exemplary”) is an artistic style and aesthetic direction in European art of the 17th-19th centuries.

The main feature of the architecture of classicism is the appeal to the forms of ancient architecture as a standard of harmony, rigor, simplicity, logical clarity and monumentality. Classicism in general is characterized by regularity of layout and clarity of volumetric forms. The basis of the architectural language is a certain system based on an artistically designed post-and-beam structure, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular city planning system.

In Russia, the wide spread of classicism dates back to the mid-1960s; it was accepted as a system of international artistic culture, within which a variant of the style developed. Among the reasons that accelerated the establishment of classicism in Russia were practical ones - the development of industry and the growth of cities brought to the fore the problems of urban planning and the multiplying types of buildings needed for increasingly complex urban life. And the grand and festive decoration of the palace cannot be extended to the entire city. The artistic language of classicism was universal, unlike baroque. It could be used in the construction of magnificent palace buildings and for ordinary dwellings, right down to modest wooden houses on the outskirts.

Classicism created a hierarchy of forms that made it possible to subordinate any structures to its norms, while expressing the place of each in social structure. The norms were compiled into a strict system. All this together made it possible to fully and accurately master the style from drawings and texts of theoretical treatises, which was almost impossible for the Baroque with its capricious individuality. General character and the level of architectural solutions was maintained through the use of exemplary designs carried out by the greatest masters. They were engraved and sent to all cities of Russia. The aesthetics of classicism favored large-scale urban planning projects and led to the streamlining of urban development on the scale of entire cities. In Russia, almost all provincial and many county towns were redesigned in accordance with the principles of classic rationalism. To the authentic museums of classicism under open air This includes cities such as St. Petersburg, Helsinki, Warsaw, Dublin, Edinburgh and a number of others.

St. Petersburg strict classicism emerged as a completed version of the style in the 1780s. I.E. Starov (1745-1808) and Giacomo Quarenghi (1744-1817) were his typical masters. Their buildings were distinguished by clarity compositional technique, conciseness of volumes, perfect harmony of proportions within the canon of classicism, subtle drawing of details. The images of the buildings they built are full of manly strength and calm dignity.

Examples architectural structures eras of classicism in St. Petersburg are:

1. St. Isaac's Cathedral ( Antonio Rinaldi)

2. Tauride Palace (I.E. Starov)

3. Wooden Triumphal Gate of Narva (Giacomo Quarenghi)

4. Kazan Cathedral (A.N. Voronikhin)

5. Arrow ensemble Vasilyevsky Island(Jean Thomas de Thomon)

6. Church of St. Catherine (Y.M. Felten)

7. Second Palace of Paul I (V.I. Bazhenov)

8. Neva Gate Peter and Paul Fortress(N.A. Lvov)

9. Admiralty building (A.D. Zakharov)

Brief description of the architectural style:

Characteristics: classicism is characterized by restrained decor and expensive high-quality materials (natural wood, stone, silk, etc.). The most common are stucco decorations and sculptures.

Predominant colors: light green, pink, purple with gold accent, light yellow, sky blue.

Lines: strict repeating vertical and horizontal lines; bas-relief in a round medallion; smooth generalized drawing; symmetry.

Form: clarity and geometric shapes; statues on the roof, rotunda.

Interior elements: discreet decor; round and ribbed columns, pilasters, statues, antique ornaments, coffered vault.

Constructions: massive, stable, monumental, rectangular, arched.

Windows: rectangular, elongated upward, with a modest design.

Doors: rectangular, paneled; with a massive gable portal on round and ribbed columns; with lions, sphinxes and statues.