RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE
The term "Renaissance" belongs to George Vasari, an Italian painter, sculptor, and architect. He believed that the main achievement of the era was the revival of the ancient heritage. At this time, there was an orientation towards Roman traditions, since it was in Italy that many examples of ancient architecture were preserved.
The process of development of Renaissance architecture in Italy can be divided into four stages:
Early Renaissance 420 - until the end of the 15th century;
High Renaissance late 15th century – 1st half of the 16th century;
Late Renaissance, the emergence of classicism, 2nd half of the 16th century;
Baroque 17th century.
EARLY RENAISSANCE IN ITALY
New trends actively interact with the Gothic, overcoming and creatively transforming it. At the beginning of the 15th century, leading cultural center Florence becomes a city-republic, located at the intersection of trade routes, which contributes to the rapid development of trade, and with it science and culture.
FEATURES OF EARLY RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE
Realistic life-affirming character (use of the ancient order system, expression of earthly feelings in buildings);
Secular content (The main thing in construction is the construction of civil structures: palazzos - city mansions of the nobility, country villas, shelters, libraries and other cultural buildings);
Based on the study of ancient examples, the flowering of the theory of architecture begins;
The emergence of new construction equipment; technology and mechanization are developing (a crane with a block system was invented);
Pointed structures give way to cylindrical and cross-domed vaults;
Creation of new architectural ensembles that emphasize the earthly feelings of man, in the composition of which centric and perspective-organized horizontals predominate, rather than Gothic vertical aspirations upward.
WORK OF FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI (1377-1446)
F. Brunelleschi is a Florentine architect and artist, a typical representative of the early Renaissance. Since 1403 he has been studying the ancient monuments of Rome. Brunelleschi's first work, which subsequently began the “report” of the time of Renaissance architecture, was the construction in 1420 of the dome of the church of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence.
The most elegant work of the early Renaissance, executed by the famous Brunelleschi, is the Pazzi Chapel. Another work of Brunelleschi is the Palazzo Pitti. Palazzo is the city palace of the nobility. He played the role of a family fortress. Construction of the palazzo took place in the 15th century until the end of the Renaissance.
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF THE PALAZZO:
Clear horizontal division of facades, according to the number of floors;
Wide cornice extension;
Formation of a plan composition around a courtyard framed by arched galleries;
Processing of facades with rustication (rust is a stone with a roughly chipped or convex front surface).
One of bright examples The palazzo is the Palazzo Medici-Riccardi.
HIGH RENAISSANCE
At the end of the 15th century, Italy remained outside the new world paths. The necessary conditions for the development of construction were available only in Rome, the capital of the Catholic Church.
The papal court sought to raise its importance through ostentatious pomp. Construction takes the lead places of worship, while the architecture of parks, gardens and country villas is developing. Architects from different cities of Italy are involved in the construction.
By the end of the 15th century, only about 70 thousand inhabitants remained in Rome. Between the populated parts of the city there are large wastelands with ancient ruins. This is exactly how Donato Bramante, invited from Milan in 1499, found Rome.
D. Bramante's first Roman building was the courtyard of the church of Santa Maria della Pace. One of Bramante's most magnificent Roman works was the small temple of Tempietto, located in the courtyard of the church of San Pietro in Montorio.
In 1503, by order of Pope JuliusIIBramante, like many outstanding architects, painters and sculptors of that time, took part in the construction of the Vatican Palaces.
Main building palace square The Vatican is St. Peter's Basilica. The design of the cathedral took place in 6 stages:
1452-1454 – project by Bernando Rossellino;
1505 – Bramante project;
1514 – project by Raphael Santi;
1536 - project by Antonio da Sangallo;
1547 - Michelangelo's project;
1607 – project by D. Fontano, C. Moderna.
LATE RENAISSANCE
There is a departure from the calm harmony of the High Renaissance, Gothic motifs come to life, and the expressiveness of forms increases.
Religious construction is once again receiving widespread development. Architects are abandoning the centric type of religious buildings and are returning to the basilica, in appearance the craving for verticality reappears.
There is disappointment in human abilities, in the power of knowledge and science. An essential feature of the new is the search for increased expressiveness and “sculptural” architecture. This was especially evident in the work of the great sculptor and architect Michelangelo Buanorotti.
In general, late Renaissance architecture is characterized by a struggle between two directions:
One laid the creative foundations of the future Baroque;
Another, developing the line of the High Renaissance, prepared the formation of the era of classicism.
A new line of development of architecture in Italy in the second half of the 16th century, when Baroque features began to appear, received its most vivid expression in the work of Michelangelo.
At the end of the 16th century, several theoretical architects appeared: Giacomo Borozzi da Vignola, Andrea Palladio, Lion Battista Alberti.
In addition to his works on the theory of architecture, Andrea Palladio was also successfully engaged in practical design. He built palaces and villas in different cities of Italy. Its buildings are distinguished by their splendor, but not by the congestion characteristic of the Baroque. The results of his work are the Palazzo Vendramina in Vicenza and the Villa Rotonda.
Giacomo da Vignola was a theorist and practitioner of architecture, gravitating towards the Baroque style, although his work also contained classical elements. He became Michelangelo's successor at the construction of Peter's Cathedral in Rome. According to Vignola's design, two smaller domes of the cathedral were built.
Vignola built several palazzos and villas, but they are insignificant in their architecture. In religious construction, the Church of Il Gesu in Rome is interesting. Giacomo da Vignola owns such buildings as the Farnese Palace in Caprarola, the Villa of Pope JuliusIIIin Rome.
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF THE LATE RENAISSANCE
Villas and palacios continue to be built;
In religious construction there is a partial return to basilicas;
Palaces change: from a castle-fortress to beautiful urban comfortable housing;
Theoretical works on architecture are being created;
The Renaissance prepared the transition to Baroque and Classicism styles.
It is no coincidence that many navigators and scientists who gained worldwide fame during the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries - P. Toscanelli, X. Columbus, J. Cabot, A. Vespucci - were Italians. Italy, fragmented politically, was at that time the country with the most developed economy and culture in Europe. In modern times, it entered the midst of a grandiose cultural revolution, called the Renaissance, or in French - Renaissance, because it originally meant the revival of the ancient heritage. However, the Renaissance was a continuation of the Middle Ages no less than a return to antiquity; it was born on the basis of a highly developed, sophisticated and complex culture Middle Ages.
The concept of the Renaissance. Humanism
Along with the concept of “Renaissance”, the concept of “humanism”, derived from the Latin humanis - human, is widely used. It is closely related to the concept of “Renaissance”, but is not equivalent to it. The term “Renaissance” denotes the entire complex of cultural phenomena characteristic of a given historical era. "Humanism" is a system of views, formed during the Renaissance era, according to which the high dignity of human personality, her right to free development and manifestation of her creative abilities.
During the Renaissance, the concept of “humanism” also meant a complex of knowledge about man, his place in nature and society. A special issue is the attitude of humanists to religion. Humanism coexisted well with Christianity, the most striking evidence of which was the active participation of clergy in the humanistic movement and, especially, the patronage of the popes. During the Renaissance, religion turned from a subject of blind faith into an object of doubt, reflection, scientific study, and even criticism. But despite this, Italy as a whole remained a religious, predominantly Catholic country. All sorts of superstitions still persisted in Italian society, and astrology and other pseudosciences flourished.
The revival went through several stages. Early Renaissance (XIV and most XV century) characterized by the emergence of Renaissance literature and related humanities, and the flourishing of humanism in general. During period B High Renaissance (end of the 15th - first third of the 16th century) There was an unprecedented flowering of fine art, but there was already a clear crisis in the humanistic worldview. During these decades, the Renaissance expanded beyond Italy. Late Renaissance (most of the 16th century)- a period when its development continued in parallel with the religious Reformation in Europe.
The capital of the Italian Renaissance was the main city of Tuscany - Florence, where a unique combination of circumstances developed that contributed to the rapid rise of culture. At the height of the High Renaissance, the center of Renaissance art moved to Rome. Popes Julius II (1503-1513) and Leo X (1513-1521) then made great efforts to revive the former glory of the Eternal City, thanks to which it truly turned into a center of world art. The third largest center of the Italian Renaissance was Venice, where Renaissance art acquired a unique coloring due to local characteristics.
Art of the Italian Renaissance
The cultural upsurge that took place in Italy during the Renaissance. manifested itself most clearly in fine arts and architecture. They reflected with particular force and clarity the great turning point of the era, which determined the path of further development of world art.
One of the most prominent figures of the Italian Renaissance was Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), who combined many talents - painter, sculptor, architect, engineer, original thinker. He lived a stormy and creative life, creating his masterpieces in the service of the Florentine Republic, for the Duke of Milan, the Pan of Rome and the King of France. Fresco by Leonardo " last supper"represents one of the peaks in the development of everything European art, and “La Gioconda” is one of his greatest mysteries.
For Leonardo, painting was a universal means of not only reflecting the world, but also understanding it. By his own definition, this is “an amazing skill, it all consists of the most subtle speculations.” With his experimental observations, this genius artist enriched almost all areas of science of his time. And his technical inventions included, for example, a parachute project.
Leonardo competed with genius no less great artist Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564), whose star began to rise at the turn of the century. It was hard to imagine such different people: Leonardo is sociable, not alien to secular manners, always searching, with a wide range of frequently changing interests; Michelangelo is reserved, stern, immersed in his work, focused on each of his new works. Michelangelo became famous as a sculptor and architect, painter and poet. Among his first masterpieces is the sculptural group “Lamentation of Christ”. In 1504, the people of Florence carried in a triumphal procession the colossal figure of David, which is the masterpiece of this master. It was solemnly installed in front of the city council building. His frescoes brought him even greater fame. Sistine Chapel in the Vatican, where in four years Michelangelo painted 600 square meters. m scenes from the Old Testament. Later, in the same chapel, his famous fresco"The Last Judgment."
Michelangelo achieved no less impressive successes in architecture. From 1547 until the end of his life, he led the construction of St. Peter's Cathedral, intended to become the main Catholic church in the world. Michelangelo radically changed the original design of this grandiose structure. According to his ingenious design, a dome was created, which to this day is unsurpassed in either size or grandeur. This Roman cathedral is one of the greatest creations of world architecture.
As a city planner, Michelangelo expressed the full power of his talent in creating the architectural ensemble on the Capitol Square. He actually formed a new image of Rome, which has since been inextricably linked with his name. Italian Renaissance painting reached its peak in the work of Raphael Santi (1483-1520). He took part in the construction of St. Peter's Cathedral, and in 1516 he was appointed chief superintendent of all Roman antiquities. However, Raphael showed himself primarily as an artist, in whose work the pictorial canons of the High Renaissance were completed. Among Raphael's artistic achievements is the painting of the state rooms of the Vatican Palace. He painted portraits of Julius II and Leo X, thanks to which Rome turned into the capital of Renaissance art. The artist’s favorite image has always been the Mother of God, a symbol mother's love. It is no coincidence that greatest masterpiece The stunning Sistine Madonna is recognized.
An honorable place in the history of Renaissance art is occupied by the Venetian school of painting, the founder of which was Giorgione (1476/77-1510). Worldwide recognition received such masterpieces as “Judith” and “Sleeping Venus” . Most an outstanding artist Venice became Titian (1470/80s - 1576). Titian brought everything he learned from Giorgione and other masters to perfection, and the free style of painting he created had a great influence on the subsequent development of world painting.
To the number early masterpieces Titian’s original concept is the painting “Earthly Love and Heavenly Love”. The Venetian artist became widely known as an unsurpassed portrait painter. Both Roman high priests and crowned heads considered it an honor to pose for him.
Architecture and sculpture
The founders of the new architectural style became outstanding masters of Florence, most notably Filippo Brunelleschi, who created the monumental dome of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore. But the main type of architectural structure during this period was no longer a church building, but a secular building - a palazzo (palace). The Renaissance style is characterized by monumentality, creating an impression of grandeur, and emphasized simplicity of facades and the convenience of spacious interiors. The complex design of Gothic buildings, which overwhelmed people with their grandeur, was contrasted with new architecture, which created a fundamentally new living environment, more consistent with human needs.
During the Renaissance, sculpture separated from architecture, free-standing monuments appeared as an independent element of the urban landscape, and the art of sculptural portraiture rapidly developed. The portrait genre, widespread in painting, sculpture and graphics, responded to the humanistic spirit of Renaissance culture.
Literature, theater, music
Renaissance literature, which was originally created in Latin, step by step gave way to national, Italian literature. By the middle of the 16th century. The Italian language, based on the Tuscan dialect, becomes predominant. This was the first national literary language in Europe, the transition to which contributed to the widespread spread of Renaissance education.
Throughout the 16th century. originated in Italy national theater in the modern sense of the word. Italian folk comedies were the first in Europe to be written in prose and had realistic character, that is, corresponded to reality.
Passion for music has always been more widespread in Italy than in any other European country. It was widespread and represented an integral element everyday life the widest sections of the population. The Renaissance brought great changes to this area. Orchestras are especially popular. New species are created musical instruments, the violin comes out on top from the strings.
A New Understanding of History and the Birth of Political Science
Renaissance thinkers developed an original view of history and created a fundamentally new periodization of the historical process, which was radically different from the mythical scheme borrowed from the Bible. The realization that a new one has arrived historical era, became the most original feature of the Italian Renaissance. Contrasting themselves to the Middle Ages, humanists turned to the masters as their direct predecessors ancient world, and the millennium between its “modern” time and antiquity was designated as the nameless “Middle Ages.” So was born completely new approach to the periodization of history, which is still accepted today.
The largest thinker of the Italian Renaissance, who made an invaluable contribution to the development of both historical and political thought, was Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527). A native of Florence, he held senior positions in the government and carried out important diplomatic assignments during the years when Italy became the scene of bitter international rivalry. It was during this catastrophic era for his country that the Florentine thinker tried to answer the most pressing problems of our time. For him, history represented the political experience of the past, and politics represented modern history.
The main concerns for Machiavelli were the “common good” of the people and the “interest of state.” It is their protection, and not private interests, that, in his opinion, should determine the behavior of the ruler. “The evidence of my honesty and fidelity is my poverty,” wrote Machiavelli in support of his conclusions. His political testament was the words: “not to deviate from good, if possible, but to be able to take the path of evil, if necessary.” This call is often perceived as a justification for immoral policies that do not disdain any means to achieve their goals, for which the concept of “Machiavellianism” was even invented.
From the book “The Prince” by N. Machiavelli
“My intention is to write something useful for someone who will understand it, which is why it seemed to me more correct to seek the real rather than the imaginary truth of things.” After all, “the distance from how life actually flows is so great to how one should live.”
“Both well-established states and wise princes tried especially hard not to embitter the nobles and at the same time satisfy the people, to make them happy, because this is one of the most important affairs of the prince.” And “those in whose hands power is given must never think about themselves.”
The sovereign “must seem merciful, faithful, humane, sincere, pious; it should be like this, but you need to strengthen your spirit in such a way that, if necessary, you become different... turn into the opposite.” “After all, anyone who would always want to profess faith in goodness will inevitably perish among so many people who are alien to goodness.”
Used literature:
V.V. Noskov, T.P. Andreevskaya / History from the end of the 15th to the end of the 18th century
One of the first buildings of the Renaissance is the Dome of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence (1420-1436). Architect Brunelleschi Phillipi (1377-1446)
15-16th centuries, thanks to geographical discoveries, steel turning point in history European civilization. World trade grew, crafts developed, the urban population increased, and construction volumes increased. Science, literature, and art developed. Italian Renaissance architecture was also driven by economic growth, as well as the weakening influence of the church. The name of the style was given by the artist, a researcher of Italian art, who wrote the book “Biographies of the Most famous painters sculptors and architects" (1568) Giordano Vasari. From his point of view, which was supported by most architects of that time, the Middle Ages were a period of decline, characterized by tribal barbarism, which destroyed the Roman Empire, and with it ancient art. It was he who wrote about the revival art of Italy, considering the Middle Ages as a period of ignorance that came after the collapse ancient art. The term later came to be used to refer to the era of a new style of art that emerged in Italy in the 16th century and then became fashionable in other European countries. The aesthetics of the Renaissance turned man's gaze to nature. Art Ancient Rome formed the basis of the artistic culture of that period. It should be noted that certain elements of ancient architecture were also used in the Middle Ages. For example, individual fragments of antiquity are found in buildings from the Carolingian Renaissance period; They also exist in the so-called “Ottonian period” at the end of the 10th century. (this was a time of cultural upsurge in Germany under the Ottonian emperors of the Saxon dynasty). Elements of antiquity can also be seen in the Gothic architecture of Germany. Unlike medieval architects, the masters of architecture of the Italian Renaissance tried to reflect in their architecture the very ancient philosophy characteristic of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome: admiration for the beauty of nature and man, a realistic worldview. Renaissance architecture in Italy is characterized by symmetry, proportionality, and strict order systems. Not only temples, but also public buildings are built in this style: educational institutions, town halls, houses of merchant guilds, markets. In the 16th century, new types of urban and country palaces appeared in Italy - palazzo and villa. The composition of customers also changed: in the Middle Ages, the main customers were the church and feudal lords; now orders come from guild associations, guilds, city authorities, and the nobility.
Founder of Italian Renaissance architecture
The architect and sculptor Filippo Brunelleschi is considered the founding father of Renaissance architecture.
The first building of Italian Renaissance architecture was the dome of the Florence Cathedral (1420-1436). In the design of this dome, Brunelleschi embodied new construction ideas that would have been difficult to implement without specially developed mechanisms. During the same period, in 1419-1444, Brunelleschi was engaged in the construction of an educational home for orphans - the “Shelter for the Innocents”.
Orphanage (1419-1444) Architect Brunelleschi
Law linear perspective means a feature of human perception of distant objects, their proportions and shapes.
It was one of the first buildings in Italy whose design resembled the buildings of antiquity. It is Brunelleschi who is credited with the discovery of the law of linear perspective, the revival of ancient orders in the architecture of the Italian Renaissance. Thanks to his work, proportions again became the basis of new architecture; he was responsible for the revival of the use of the “golden ratio” in architecture, which made it possible to achieve harmony in architectural structures. Thus, Brunelleschi revived ancient traditions in Renaissance architecture in Italy, taking them as a basis when creating a new type of architecture. Brunelleschi's ideas coincided with new directions in the philosophy of society: in this period, medieval prohibitions and contempt for everything earthly were replaced by an interest in reality and man.
The golden ratio is a mathematical concept, in architecture it means the relationship between two quantities (one larger in size, the other smaller) contained in a common value. In this case, the ratio of the larger quantity to the smaller corresponds to the ratio of the general quantity to the larger of the two related quantities. Such a ratio was first discovered by Euclid (300 BC). During the Renaissance, the ratio was called the “divine proportion”, the modern name appeared in 1835. The ratio between quantities in the golden ratio is a constant number 1.6180339887.
Periods in Italian Renaissance architecture
There are several stages in the development of the Renaissance in Italian architecture: early - 15th century, mature - 16th century and late. In the early period, Gothic elements were still present in architecture, combined with ancient forms, and in the mature period, elements gothic style are no longer found, preference is given to architectural orders and proportional forms; in the late period of the Renaissance, the spirit of the new Baroque style is already felt. Early period. The main principle of the Italian Renaissance was the symmetry of the structure in plan, the uniform distribution of architectural elements: portals, columns, doors, windows, sculptural compositions and decor along the perimeter of the facade. Renaissance architecture in Italy early period Its development is mainly associated with Florence. It was here that palaces for the nobility were built in the 15th century, temple buildings, public buildings. In Florence, in 1420, the architect Filippo Brunelleschi began erecting the dome of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore; in 1421, he rebuilt San Lorenzo and worked on the construction of the chapel - Old Sacristy. In 1444 Brunelleschi completed the construction of the Orphanage. The Pazzi Chapel in Florence, also the work of Brunelleschi, is considered one of the most elegant buildings of the early Renaissance. The chapel is crowned with a dome on a drum; the building is decorated with a Corinthian portico with a wide arch.
The Church of San Lorenzo (Basilica di San Lorenzo) was consecrated by St. Ambrosius in 393. In 1060 it was converted into romanesque style. In 1423 it was rebuilt by Brunelleschi in the early Renaissance style.
In 1452, the architect Michelozzi completed the construction of the Medici Palace (Palazzo Medici Riccardi) in Florence. Alberti designs the Rucellai Palace (Palazzo Rucellai, designed in 1446 and 1451), Benedetto de Maiano and Simon Polayola complete the Strozzi Palace (Palazzo Strozzi, 1489-1539).
Michelozzi - (Michelozzo, Michelozzi, 1391 (1396) - 1472) - Florentine architect and sculptor, student of Brunelleschi.
Alberti Leon Battista - (Alberti, 1404-1472), Italian scientist, architect, writer, musician. In his creations he made extensive use of the ancient heritage, using volutes and the order system.
Benedetto da Maiano - real name: Benedetto da Leonardo d'Antonio (Benedetto da Maiano), 1442 - 1497) - Italian sculptor. Simone del Pollaiolo (1457 - 1508) - Florentine architect. High Renaissance.
Medici Palace. Architect Michelozzi. Built for Cosimo de' Medici il Vecchio between 1444 and 1464.
Rucellai Palace - commissioned by philanthropist Giovanni Rucellai. Project by Leon Baptiste Alberti 1446-1451. Erected by Bernardo Rossellino
Strozzi Palace. The building was built by Benedetto de Maiano commissioned by Filippo Strozzi in 1489-1539. The model was the Medici Palace (Palazzo Medici-Riccardi) Michelozzi
These buildings have a general spatial solution scheme. Each of them has three floors and a courtyard with arched galleries. The walls have floor divisions, are rusticated or decorated with an order. The façade is lined with brickwork.
Michelozzi - (Michelozzo, Michelozzi, 1391 (1396) - 1472) - Florentine architect and sculptor, student of Brunelleschi. Alberti Leon Battista - (Alberti, 1404-1472), Italian scientist, architect, writer, musician. In his creations he made extensive use of the ancient heritage, using volutes and the order system. Benedetto da Maiano - real name: Benedetto da Leonardo d'Antonio (Benedetto da Maiano), 1442 - 1497) - Italian sculptor. Simone del Pollaiolo (1457 - 1508) - Florentine architect. High Renaissance.
Italy's trade with the East was interrupted at the end of the 15th century due to the Turkish conquest of Constantinople. As trade died out, the country's economy declined. And it was during this period that High Renaissance architecture began to develop. This style reaches particular heights in Rome, where great architects formed a general approach to the construction of buildings based on the use of architectural orders. High Renaissance architecture is characterized by cubic shapes of houses and an internal closed courtyard. On the facades, relief window frames were made, decorated with half-columns and having triangular and bow pediments. Donato de Angelo Bramante (Bramante, 1444-1514) is one of the most famous masters of Italian High Renaissance architecture. His work was developed in Milan, which was considered a conservative city, where the traditions of brick construction and terracotta decoration were preserved. During the same period, Leonardo da Vinci worked in Milan, and his work undoubtedly influenced the works of Bramante. The architect managed to connect national traditions with Renaissance elements. Bramante's first work was in 1479 the restoration of the church of Santa Maria presso San Satiro in Milan.
Church of Santa Maria presso San Satino in Milan (1479-1483) Architect Donato de' Angelo Bramante
He also rebuilt the chapel of San Satino: the architect made a round building from a cruciform structure, decorated with decorative elements. After moving to Rome, Bramante built the Temple of Tempietto (monastery of San Pietro in Mantorio) in 1502, and designed the courtyard of the church of Santa Maria della Paci.
Temple of Tempietto. Architect Bramante
In 1505, Bramante, who held the position of chief architect, began working on the papal palace complex Belvedere, a residence next to the Vatican. His works include the Palazzo Caprini - the House of Raphael - designed around 1510, in 1517 it was purchased by Raphael. The house has not survived to this day.
Palazzo Caprini in an engraving by Antoine Lafrerie. Architect Bramante
Rafael Santi (Raffaello Santi, Raffaello Sanzio, Rafael, Raffael da Urbino, Rafaelo, 1483 -1520) - Italian painter and architect.
IN recent years During his lifetime, the architect was involved in the design of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. The architectural elements and techniques used by the architect were used by the masters of the Italian Renaissance in the construction of villas and city buildings. After Bramante, Raphael enjoyed enormous fame during the development of High Renaissance architecture.
Raphael's first project was the Church of Sant'Eligio degli Orefici (Chiesa di S. Eligio degli Orefici, early 16th century. Subsequently, the church was rebuilt. The dome was created by B. Peruzzi, the current facade is by F. Ponzio (17th century)).
Church of Sant'Eligio degli Orifici
By order of the papal banker Chigi, he added a chapel to the church of Santa Maria Del Popolo. In the Palazzo del Aquila, he created a new type of facade: at the bottom there was an order arcade, the mezzanine was framed by windows, niches with sculptures, and stucco.
In the Palazzo Landolfini in Florence, the architect came up with another type of façade design: widely spaced, richly decorated windows combined with smoothly plastered walls, complementing the appearance of a cornice with a wide frieze, rusticated corners and a portal. Raphael designed the Villa Madama for Cardinal Giulio de' Medici, who later became Pope Clement VII. The villa was built on the slope of Monte Mario on the west bank of the Tiber River north of the Vatican. Work began in 1518, and Raphael died in 1520. The villa remained unfinished: by this time only one U-shaped wing had been completed. The villa was left unfinished and only the completed part was used. The building received its current name in honor of Margatha of Parma, the wife of Pope Clement the Seventh’s nephew, Alexander de’ Medici, the first Duke of Tuscany.
Villa Madama - country villa of Cardinal Giulio de' Medici (Pope Clement the Seventh)
Since 1514, Raphael led the project for the construction of St. Peter's Cathedral. Then the construction of St. Peter's Cathedral, the construction of which resumed in 1534, was led by Antonio da Sagallo the Younger, after whom the leadership passed to Michelangelo, whose arrival served as an impetus for the development of the later stage in the architecture of the Italian Renaissance. This stage was marked by various architectural experiments with shapes, the frequency of columns and other architectural elements on the facade, the complication of details, and the appearance of complex lines. Since 1530, after the sack of Rome, the process of development of Italian Renaissance architecture took other directions. Some architects tried to restore the lost grandeur of the Eternal City: for example, Peruzzi, Antonio da Sangallo Jr. - representatives of the older generation of Renaissance architects, returned to Rome after its fall and tried to find a compromise between ancient principles and new trends.
Peruzzi - Peruzzi Baldassare (1481-1536) Italian artist and architect. Worked with Donato Bramante and Raphael. Peruzzi in his work combined the traditions of the High Renaissance with the ideas of mannerism. Antonio da Sangallo Jr. - (Antonio da Sangallo il Giovane; 1484 -1546 real name Antonio Cordini (Italian Antonio Cordini)) - Florentine architect of the Renaissance. Researchers also attribute him to the founders of the Baroque style due to the creation of unusual structures: for example, the façade with a forward slope in the Zecca Vecchia (Banco di Spirito), the arched plinth of the Palazzo Farnese.
Other masters began to look for other ways in their creativity. In the mid-16th century, a group appeared in Tuscany, uniting masters whose work belongs to the movement of mannerism. Many representatives of this group were students of Michelangelo, however, borrowing some from him artistic techniques, they exaggerated and hypertrophied them, while the violation of some canons of the ancient style, which was an expression of the plans of the great master, became an end in itself for them. Italian Renaissance architects borrowed characteristic techniques and elements of Roman architecture into their designs. classical architecture, using them not only in churches, but also in city and country houses of wealthy citizens, and public buildings. The plan of the buildings was determined by rectangular shapes, symmetry, proportionality, the facade was symmetrical about the vertical axis, decorated with pilasters, cornice, arches, and topped with a pediment. The development of Italian Renaissance architecture was characterized by the emergence of building materials and technologies; architects had a personal recognizable style which made them famous. Renaissance architecture in Italy went through a full stage of development - from early to late, which created the preconditions for the emergence of a new style - Baroque. Thanks to the art of Italian architects, Renaissance architecture conquered all of Europe.
The new direction in Italian architecture, when it emerged, was associated with the processing of ancient traditions and the order system in relation to local building materials and designs. In the buildings of this time, the plane of the wall and its materiality are again emphasized; clearly limited interior space gaining unity. The proportionality of the proportions of the supporting and pressing parts is also achieved; a balance of horizontals and verticals is established in the rhythmic division of the building.
Brunelleschi. The founder of Renaissance architecture was Filippo Brunelleschi (1377–1446), a native of Florence. After completing an apprenticeship in a jewelry workshop, Brunelleschi began his creative activity as a sculptor, taking part in a competition to create a relief for the bronze doors of the Florentine baptistery (baptistery). A multi-talented person who combined an interest in art with the knowledge of an engineer, the mind of an inventor, and a mathematician, he soon devoted himself entirely to architecture. His first major work was the grandiose octagonal dome (1420–1436) erected over the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore, built in the 14th century. An elongated dome with a diameter of 42 m at the base covers the altar part of the massive basilica. Its powerful, clear silhouette still reigns over the city, perfectly perceived from a long distance. Using new structures and a frame system, Brunelleschi managed to do without scaffolding, building a hollow dome with two shells. He thus lightened the weight of the vault and reduced the thrust force acting on the walls of the octagonal drum. For the first time in Western European architecture, Brunelleschi gave a clearly defined plastic volume of the dome, rising to the heavens and overshadowing, in the words of the architect Alberti, “all the Tuscan peoples.” The enlarged scale of the dome's forms, its powerful masses, articulated by strong ribs, are emphasized by the grace and fine detailing of the decor of the lantern that completes it. In this building, erected to the glory of the city, the triumph of reason was embodied, an idea that determined the main direction of the culture of the Renaissance.
If, during the construction of the dome, Brunelleschi had to take into account the character of the previously built parts of the cathedral, then he gave a completely new understanding of the architectural image in the Orphanage (Ospedale degli Innocenti) in Florence (1419–1444) in Piazza Annunziata - the first civil building of the Renaissance that corresponded to progressive ideas time. The two-story facade of the house is distinguished by simplicity and lightness of proportions, clarity of horizontal and vertical divisions. On the lower floor it is decorated with an elegant loggia, the semi-circular arches of which rest on slender columns. They emphasize the friendly, hospitable character of the building. In the spaces between the arches there are round ceramic medallions by Andrea della Robbia depicting swaddled babies. With their cheerfulness and clarity, the gentle charm of childhood images, these reliefs subtly harmonize with the architecture of the building and its purpose.
The constructive and decorative techniques found in the Foundling House were developed by Brunelleschi in the Pazzi Chapel at the Church of Santa Croce in Florence (begun in 1430). This small chapel, striking in its harmonious integrity, is located in the depths of the narrow monastery courtyard; rectangular in plan, it is completed with a light dome. Its façade is a six-column Corinthian portico with a large middle bay covered by an arch. The slender proportions of the columns, the high attic above them, in combination with new decorative elements, speak of a sense of proportion and the creative use of the ancient order. The interior space of the chapel was also designed using an order system. Its walls, divided by pilasters into equal sections, are decorated with niches and round medallions. The pilasters end with a cornice that carries a vault and semicircular arches. Sculptural decoration and ceramics, graphic elegance of lines, and contrasting colors emphasize the flatness of the walls, imparting integrity and clarity to the bright, spacious interior.
One of the most important problems Italian architecture of the 15th century was the development of the basic principles for the construction of a palazzo (city palace), which served as a prototype for public buildings of later times. At this time, a type of majestic building was created, rectangular in plan, with a single closed volume, with many rooms located around the courtyard. The name of Brunelleschi is associated with the construction of the central part of Palazzo Pitti (started in 1440) in Florence, laid out from huge, roughly hewn stone blocks (block masonry was called rustication). The roughness of the stone texture enhances the power of architectural forms. Horizontal tie rods emphasize the division of the building into three floors. Huge eight-meter portal windows complete the impression of proud, stern power produced by this palace.
Alberti. The next stage in the development of Renaissance architecture was the work of Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472), an encyclopedist and theorist, author of a number of scientific treatises on art (“Ten Books on Architecture”). In the Palazzo Rucellai he designed in Florence (1446–1451), a three-story Renaissance palace with a courtyard and rooms located around it, Alberti introduced a system of pilasters that divided the wall, entablature and lightweight rustication with a smooth polished surface floor-by-floor.
Rossellino. The ancient heritage (Roman architecture) received new plastic expressiveness in his interpretation. For the first time, the main elements of order architecture were introduced into the composition of the palazzo facade, load-bearing and non-supporting parts were identified, which also help to express the scale of the building and its inclusion in the surrounding ensemble. The execution of Alberti's plan belongs to Bernardo Rossellino.
Benedetto da Maiano. The development of the early Renaissance palace type in the 15th century is completed by the Palazzo Strozzi in Florence (begun in 1489) by Benedetto da Maiano (1442–1497). This majestic palace is characterized by the harmony of the main masses. Clear, correct in composition of plan and volume, with its three rusticated facades it faces the street and passages. Crowning it, magnificent in its classical form, the richly profiled cornice is clearly perceived in contrast to the austere simplicity of the walls. The courtyard, connected to the street, loses its intimate character and becomes one of the ceremonial parts of the palace.
The dark times of the Middle Ages have come to an end. The clouds cleared and the light of the Renaissance illuminated Italy. One of the greatest minds in history. was a brilliant man. He is responsible for some of the greatest inventions and creations of architecture. During this era, the ancient heritage was revived, no other period in history has produced so many geniuses.
But the brilliant architects of those times had to fight against natural disasters, church dogma and each other. This was the era of architects who proved that nothing is impossible.
The Rise and Fall of Siena
But by the 12th century in Italy many republics were formed, they longed to restore Rome's former glory. They had to breathe new life into the culture of Western Europe.
Italian Renaissance, it amazes with its progressiveness and beauty, it had a huge influence on world culture. This age of invention and innovations, era, . It was during this period that unknown masters, artisans, and builders became famous artists and architects.
In the 12th and 13th centuries, Italy began to revive. On the peninsula again stability reigns largely thanks to the Holy Roman Empire. Feudalism is established and cities are reborn.
Appears in Italian cities new type of rulers, they become traders. They did not belong to the traditional aristocracy, thanks to this in the 13th century life in cities has become much livelier.
Every year, according to medieval custom, horse races are held: in one and a half minutes you have to go around this square three times. Horses gallop past an amazing 15th century fountain created by Modern people They are accustomed to the fact that water flows from the taps in their house, and before this fountain served as a source of water for the residents of Siena. The richer the city became, the more inhabitants there were and the more water they needed.
Supplying the city with enough water was very difficult. Near Siena there is no river, residents had to find other sources of water, so they built underground tunnel system.
A system of underground tunnels called Bottini, gave access to underground springs and soil waters. Gradually the water seeped into these narrow tunnels and accumulated in tanks.
But building Bottini was no easy task. Using picks, hammers and chisels, stonemasons made passages in the rock, working in the dark, cramped conditions and dust.
Bottini could stretch for kilometers, and the builders needed to know which direction to dig, so at times they would punch out holes called "okki" - "eyes", this gave the builders an idea of where they were and, if necessary, allowed them to change the direction of the Bottini .
Through the system of these tunnels, water dispersed throughout the city and entered the fountains on the busiest streets of Siena, like the Gaia Fountain.
The bottom of the tunnels had to drop at a very small angle, less than one degree: with a greater slope, the water would simply overflow the system. To measure the inclination, engineers used a tool that was a pendulum: a stone suspended from a stick on a rope. No matter how you tilt the stick, the rope will remain vertical in relation to the tilt of the stick. This way, the water will flow slowly and evenly and fill the Gaia Fountain.
By 1345, more than 16 kilometers of tunnels. The city continued to grow and prosper. The more water there was, the more people could settle in Siena, and the more it grew. Soon, most of the South fell into its sphere of influence. This prosperity and growth of Siena's territories worried its neighbors.
Humanism is, first of all, an interest in antiquity. The ancient ruins of Italy testify to the heights that man was able to achieve in ancient times. These were ready-made architectural models; by imitating them, it was possible to build something truly outstanding.
But when in 1347 The Black Death broke out, it did not escape Florence either: almost half of the city’s residents died. It took more than half a century to recover from such a blow. But the revival turned out to be truly grandiose: it was Renaissance era, which is what it means.
The ruling elite of Tuscany began to spend their fabulous wealth on the implementation of monumental architectural projects. Those who managed to stay alive after the epidemic want to enjoy life, want to fully experience the taste of life, and give it a certain meaning.
The Florentines, one of Italy's richest families, began to restore their city to its former glory, turning it into New Athens. The rulers of steel, they used artists and architects for their own glorification.
The apogee of their efforts was Cathedral in the center of Florence. They wanted to create something never seen before; this was the main idea behind the construction.
Before Brunelleschi, all projects were based on approximate models, a practice that was stopped after he introduced the so-called paper architecture, i.e. drawings and plans. This is where it started history of modern architecture.
Brunelleschi's innovations were tested during construction in 1442. Everything in it is interconnected. Brunelleschi tried to combine all the details of the structure so that they harmoniously complement each other like the bones of a skeleton.
Through the discovery of perspective, Renaissance architects learn manage space, they learn to perceive it in three dimensions, as well as build their own projects. Now construction begins with a concept, which is gradually developed to perfection.
Reconstruction of Corsignano
For centuries, architects will use Brunelleschi's architectural solutions. But in the history of architecture there came new era: Former rival cities again remembered their past discord. Both architects and engineers will be attracted to a different kind of activity: their inspiration will now serve art of war.
1459 Filippo Brunelleschi became founder of Renaissance architecture, making Florence a center of excellence in construction and design. Now his ideas spread beyond the Florentine Republic.
Filippo Brunelleschi used antiques in his design architectural elements: columns, pilasters, as well as strict proportions, turning individual parts into a single whole, where no one element predominated. But he did not describe his work, he did it for him. He wrote not only about architecture, but also about archaeology, politics, religion and even horse riding. He himself was a good architect; Alberti’s works were read by many, including a very powerful man at that time, Silvio Piccolomini.
If it happens to you heart attack Every time your wife starts talking about renovation, imagine the following: The Pope, having read Alberti’s book, told him that he wanted to rebuild the place where he was born. No, not a house, but a whole city!
Enea Silvio Piccolomini became Pope in 1458. A year later, he wished to transform his hometown Corsignano to an ideal city.
Nowadays it is a Tuscan town. Such a provincial town with a population of about 200 people opened up a wide field of activity for Pius II. He erected a monumental cathedral and surrounded it with other imposing buildings. The streets were deliberately made crooked so that people would not realize how small the city is: when you walk along the crooked street, the buildings block your view, and the city seems larger than it really is.
By the time completion of reconstruction in 1464 more than 40 buildings were built or rebuilt. Each of them expressed new trends in its own way, but the city as a whole was an excellent example of the architecture of that era.
Italian engineers and architects in the service of the army
But the harmony in Pienza did not last long: a concept that glorified the greatness of man was asked to be challenged. In 1492 he died, nicknamed Lorenzo the Magnificent, ruler of Florence. Many of its citizens were tired of the rule of the Medici dynasty. In addition, they listened to the Dominican's sermons, in which he castigated the vices of the Church and the state. He advocated revival, preached repentance and asceticism. Savonarola declared that if Florence did not come to its senses, a hurricane of God's wrath would fall on the city.
And indeed, clouds were already gathering over all of Italy: the ruler of France was preparing for a campaign and threatened to destroy any city that stood in his way.
Savonarola predicted a certain disaster, and when the invasion occurred, he was able to say: “See, I predicted it!” He likened himself to the prophets.
The predictions of this frantic preacher soon came true: in 1494, King Charles VIII of France prepared to march through Italy with fire and sword. Italy consisted of many warring republics, and it was not difficult to win her.
If earlier Italian architecture glorified man, now it was dedicated to war. There were no military engineers in those days. Therefore, the great architects of the Renaissance, who sometimes understood nothing about military affairs, had to build fortifications for the largest cities in Italy.
New technologies were now aimed at serving the army. Charles VIII's main weapon was new guns, and the medieval walls crumbled under their fire. The new guns were more reliable and longer-range, and the shells became larger and heavier. Thanks to these cannons, the army of Charles VIII could take any fortress.
For the Italians, this became a living nightmare, because they could not stop the enemy. Shells of new guns are easy pierced high and thin medieval walls, leaving Italian cities without protection.
The ancient walls even prevented the use of new weapons against the invaders. The new guns had a very strong recoil; they could not be fired from the ancient walls, since the walls would become loose and destroyed.
Italian architects began to design lower and thicker walls that could withstand cannon fire. New thick walls withstood fire from new guns, as they absorbed the impact force of large projectiles.
The layout of the city walls also underwent changes: walls began to be made with many angles. Corner bastions of star-shaped fortresses forced the enemy to keep their distance. The inclined surface of the walls easily withstood isolated artillery hits.
The city walls take a star-shaped plan with protruding corners multifaceted bastions who played key role in the city's defense. Numerous angles created many faces; the faces allowed different corners of the fortress to cover each other.
Fortresses with bastions became a classic model of military fortifications throughout Europe.
Renaissance of Rome
But soon Florence and Tuscany ceded the leading role in the development of architecture and engineering to the ancient capital of Italy. The former capital regained power and glory.
At the beginning of the 14th century, there is a struggle for the papal throne, and the supposedly legitimate one moves to France. By the 70s of the 14th century, when the chapter returns to Rome, here devastation reigns. Over the next century, the Popes were engaged in the reconstruction of Rome.
Late 15th century Florence becomes a republic again, but at the same time loses its former influence. And all the celebrities seem da Vinci, leaving Florence. Now, if you want to become famous, your place is in Rome.
In the 14th century, Rome was in decline. But when, at the beginning of the 15th century, it again became the Papal residence, the rise of Rome begins.
One Pope became especially famous for his activities in the revival of Rome, it was. He and his followers turned Rome into a magnificent and influential capital of Christianity.
Sixtus V undertook to revive this city. If Rome was again destined to become the capital of the Catholic Church, then the city needed major reconstruction.
However, its revival was not an easy task. First we had to make its streets safe, clearing it of criminals. Dad simply ordered catch and execute them all.
The next step was restoration of aqueducts, examples of the triumph of engineering. When water returned to the city, Rome became again a populous and prosperous city. The streets were widened and paved with stone. The city was worried construction boom.
But Sixtus had one more grand vision: Erect monuments to past glory to stimulate future development of the city. He used obelisks, brought by the Roman conquerors from. These were war trophies that the ancient Romans placed throughout the city. Today there are more obelisks in Rome than in Egypt itself. Sixtus used them as a kind of exclamation marks.
Dad wanted to install one of these obelisks in front, but there was one problem: it weighed over 300 tons. It was not easy to move it.
The Pope entrusted this task to an architect and engineer. His plan was simple, but seemed almost impossible. He surrounded the 300-ton obelisk with a wooden frame to protect it from damage. Metal fastenings were installed along the perimeter of the obelisk. The frame rose 30 meters. Ropes were passed through rings on metal fasteners so that the obelisk could be lifted with a winch. 900 people were involved in this.
With the help of 40 winches, the obelisk was lifted and lowered onto a platform with wooden rollers, then it was moved to a new location. This grandiose project was carried out on April 30, 1586.
The people who raised the obelisk silence was ordered under penalty of death throughout the entire operation.
17 days later the obelisk was delivered to a new location in front of St. Peter's Basilica, where it is still located.
The fame of the miraculous revival of Rome spread throughout Europe. Capital ancient empire re-entered the world stage. The era of great architects, originating in Florence, transformed Rome and all of Europe.
Architects and engineers created creations of amazing beauty and majesty, such as Roman obelisks or the Florence Cathedral. They glorified the enormous human potential and created the feeling that man is the crown of all things. Many people believe that it is The Renaissance gave rise to modern culture.
